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Xie Y, Chen L, Li H, Yi Y. Polymer and Hybrid Optical Devices Manipulated by the Thermo-Optic Effect. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3721. [PMID: 37765574 PMCID: PMC10537378 DOI: 10.3390/polym15183721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The thermo-optic effect is a crucial driving mechanism for optical devices. The application of the thermo-optic effect in integrated photonics has received extensive investigation, with continuous progress in the performance and fabrication processes of thermo-optic devices. Due to the high thermo-optic coefficient, polymers have become an excellent candidate for the preparation of high-performance thermo-optic devices. Firstly, this review briefly introduces the principle of the thermo-optic effect and the materials commonly used. In the third section, a brief introduction to the waveguide structure of thermo-optic devices is provided. In addition, three kinds of thermo-optic devices based on polymers, including an optical switch, a variable optical attenuator, and a temperature sensor, are reviewed. In the fourth section, the typical fabrication processes for waveguide devices based on polymers are introduced. Finally, thermo-optic devices play important roles in various applications. Nevertheless, the large-scale integrated applications of polymer-based thermo-optic devices are still worth investigating. Therefore, we propose a future direction for the development of polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Xie
- College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China;
| | - Liguo Chen
- College of Integrated Circuits and Optoelectronic Chips, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (L.C.)
| | - Haojia Li
- College of Integrated Circuits and Optoelectronic Chips, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (L.C.)
| | - Yunji Yi
- College of Integrated Circuits and Optoelectronic Chips, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (L.C.)
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2
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Flynn C, Cao H, Applegate BE, Tkaczyk TS. Fabrication of waveguide directional couplers using 2-photon lithography. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:26323-26334. [PMID: 37710495 PMCID: PMC10544952 DOI: 10.1364/oe.495363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Advances in 2-photon lithography have enabled in-lab production of sub-micron resolution and millimeter scale 3D optical components. The potential complex geometries are well suited to rapid prototyping and production of waveguide structures, interconnects, and waveguide directional couplers, furthering future development and miniaturization of waveguide-based imaging technologies. System alignment is inherent to the 2-photon process, obviating the need for manual assembly and allowing precise micron scale waveguide geometries not possible in traditional fused fiber coupler fabrication. Here we present the use of 2-photon lithography for direct printing of multi-mode waveguide couplers with air cladding and single mode waveguide couplers with uncured liquid photoresin cladding. Experimental results show reproducible coupling which can be modified by selected design parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Flynn
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6500 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Haimu Cao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Brian E. Applegate
- Caruso Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Southern California, 1450 San Pablo St., Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Tomasz S. Tkaczyk
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6500 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
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3
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Ciganas J, Bubulis A, Jurenas V, Griskevicius P, Palevicius A, Urbaite S, Janusas G. Dynamic Mechanical Properties of PVC Plastics in the Formation of Microstructures with Novel Magnetostrictor. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:820. [PMID: 37421053 DOI: 10.3390/mi14040820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Molding in thermoplastic polymers using ultrasonic hot embossing technology is promising due to its high precision reproducibility. To understand, analyze and apply the formation of polymer microstructures by the ultrasonic hot embossing method, it is necessary to understand dynamic loading conditions. The Standard Linear Solid model (SLS) is a method that allows analyzing the viscoelastic properties of materials by representing them as a combination of springs and dashpots. However, this model is general, and it is challenging to represent a viscoelastic material with multiple relaxations. Therefore, this article aims to use the data obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis for extrapolation in a wide range of cyclic deformations and to use the obtained data in microstructure formation simulations. The formation was replicated using a novel magnetostrictor design that sets a specific temperature and vibration frequency. The changes were analyzed on a diffractometer. After the diffraction efficiency measurement, it was found that the highest quality structures were formed at a temperature of 68 °C, a frequency of 10 kHz, a frequency amplitude of 1.5 µm and a force of 1 kN force. Moreover, the structures could be molded on any thickness of plastic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justas Ciganas
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Algimantas Bubulis
- Institute of Mechatronics, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Vytautas Jurenas
- Institute of Mechatronics, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Paulius Griskevicius
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Arvydas Palevicius
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Sigita Urbaite
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Giedrius Janusas
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
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4
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Preuß JA, Gehring H, Schmidt R, Jin L, Wendland D, Kern J, Pernice WHP, de Vasconcellos SM, Bratschitsch R. Low-Divergence hBN Single-Photon Source with a 3D-Printed Low-Fluorescence Elliptical Polymer Microlens. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:407-413. [PMID: 36445803 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c03001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Efficiently collecting light from single-photon emitters is crucial for photonic quantum technologies. Here, we develop and use an ultralow fluorescence photopolymer to three-dimensionally print micrometer-sized elliptical lenses on individual precharacterized single-photon emitters in hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) nanocrystals, operating in the visible regime. The elliptical lens design beams the light highly efficiently into the far field, rendering bulky objective lenses obsolete. Using back focal plane imaging, we confirm that the emission is collimated to a narrow low-divergence beam with a half width at half-maximum of 2.2°. Using photon correlation measurements, we demonstrate that the single-photon character remains undisturbed by the polymer lens. The strongly directed emission and increased collection efficiency is highly beneficial for quantum optical experiments. Furthermore, our approach paves the way for a highly parallel fiber-based detection of single photons from hBN nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann A Preuß
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Helge Gehring
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Center for Soft Nanoscience, University of Münster, Heisenbergstr. 11, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Robert Schmidt
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Lin Jin
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Center for Soft Nanoscience, University of Münster, Heisenbergstr. 11, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Daniel Wendland
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Center for Soft Nanoscience, University of Münster, Heisenbergstr. 11, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Johannes Kern
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Wolfram H P Pernice
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Center for Soft Nanoscience, University of Münster, Heisenbergstr. 11, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Kirchhoff-Institute for Physics, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 227, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Steffen Michaelis de Vasconcellos
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Department of Physics, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn-Str. 4, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Rudolf Bratschitsch
- Institute of Physics and Center for Nanotechnology, University of Münster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
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5
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Zheng Y, Zhao H, Cai Y, Jurado-Sánchez B, Dong R. Recent Advances in One-Dimensional Micro/Nanomotors: Fabrication, Propulsion and Application. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2022; 15:20. [PMID: 36580129 PMCID: PMC9800686 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-022-00988-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Due to their tiny size, autonomous motion and functionalize modifications, micro/nanomotors have shown great potential for environmental remediation, biomedicine and micro/nano-engineering. One-dimensional (1D) micro/nanomotors combine the characteristics of anisotropy and large aspect ratio of 1D materials with the advantages of functionalization and autonomous motion of micro/nanomotors for revolutionary applications. In this review, we discuss current research progress on 1D micro/nanomotors, including the fabrication methods, driving mechanisms, and recent advances in environmental remediation and biomedical applications, as well as discuss current challenges and possible solutions. With continuous attention and innovation, the advancement of 1D micro/nanomotors will pave the way for the continued development of the micro/nanomotor field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhong Zheng
- School of Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - He Zhao
- School of Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuepeng Cai
- School of Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Beatriz Jurado-Sánchez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, and Chemical Engineering, Universidad de Alcala, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain.
- Chemical Research Institute "Andrés M. del Río", University of Alcala, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Renfeng Dong
- School of Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
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6
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Porfirev AP, Khonina SN, Ivliev NA, Fomchenkov SA, Porfirev DP, Karpeev SV. Polarization-Sensitive Patterning of Azopolymer Thin Films Using Multiple Structured Laser Beams. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 23:112. [PMID: 36616710 PMCID: PMC9824621 DOI: 10.3390/s23010112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The polarization sensitivity of azopolymers is well known. Therefore, these materials are actively used in many applications of photonics. Recently, the unique possibilities of processing such materials using a structured laser beam were demonstrated, which revealed the key role of the distribution of polarization and the longitudinal component of light in determining the shape of the nano- and microstructures formed on the surfaces of thin azopolymer films. Here, we present numerical and experimental results demonstrating the high polarization sensitivity of thin azopolymer films to the local polarization state of an illuminating structured laser beam consisting of a set of light spots. To form such arrays of spots with a controlled distribution of polarization, different polarization states of laser beams, both homogeneous and locally inhomogeneous, were used. The results obtained show the possibility of implementing a parallel non-uniform patterning of thin azopolymer films depending on the polarization distribution of the illuminating laser beam. We believe that the demonstrated results will not only make it possible to implement the simultaneous detection of local polarization states of complex-shaped light fields but will also be used for the high-performance fabrication of diffractive optical elements and metasurfaces.
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7
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Xu X, Liu X, Immonen M, Ma L, He Z. Investigation on mode dispersion and lamination stability of multimode polymer waveguides for an optical backplane. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:40505-40514. [PMID: 36298982 DOI: 10.1364/oe.472218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, two noteworthy issues of mode dispersion and lamination stability of multimode polymer waveguides for optical backplane are investigated. In the case of center launching by 50-µm graded-index (GI) multimode fiber (MMF), mode dispersion of polymer waveguides with different widths is analyzed theoretically and measured in the view of bit error rate (BER) curves. Compared with the waveguide with the width of 40 µm, 1-dB power penalty is observed by the 70-µm-width waveguide due to its larger mode dispersion. On the other hand, waveguide stability after laminating process with high temperature and pressure is measured experimentally. No significant changes in core shape and size are observed. The average insertion loss of 80 channels before and after lamination are 0.137 dB/cm and 0.192 dB/cm, respectively. Error-free transmission at 25 Gb/s is obtained by laminated waveguides. The results imply the feasibility and potential of multimode waveguides for optical backplane.
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8
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Taghavi I, Dehghannasiri R, Fan T, Tofini A, Moradinejad H, Efterkhar AA, Shekhar S, Chrostowski L, Jaeger NAF, Adibi A. Enhanced poling and infiltration for highly efficient electro-optic polymer-based Mach-Zehnder modulators. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:27841-27857. [PMID: 36236945 DOI: 10.1364/oe.460830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
An ultra-narrow 40-nm slotted waveguide is fabricated to enable highly efficient, electro-optic polymer modulators. Our measurement results indicate that VπL's below ∼ 1.19 V.mm are possible for the balanced Mach-Zehnder modulators using this ultra-narrow slotted waveguide on a hybrid silicon-organic hybrid platform. Our simulations suggest that VπL's can be further reduced to ∼ 0.35 V.mm if appropriate doping is utilized. In addition to adapting standard recipes, we developed two novel fabrication processes to achieve miniaturized devices with high modulation sensitivity. To boost compactness and decrease the overall footprint, we use a fabrication approach based on air bridge interconnects on thick, thermally-reflowed, MaN 2410 E-beam resist protected by an alumina layer. To overcome the challenges of high currents and imperfect infiltration of polymers into ultra-narrow slots, we use a carefully designed, atomically-thin layer of TiO2 as a carrier barrier to enhance the efficiency of our electro-optic polymers. The anticipated increase in total capacitance due to the TiO2 layer is negligible. Applying our TiO2 surface treatment to the ultra-narrow slot allows us to obtain an improved index change efficiency (∂n/∂V) of ∼ 22% for a 5 nm TiO2 layer. Furthermore, compared to non-optimized cases, our peak measured current during poling is reduced by a factor of ∼ 3.
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9
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Murić BD, Pantelić DV, Radmilović MD, Savić-Šević SN, Vasović VO. Characterization and Optimization of Real-Time Photoresponsive Gelatin for Direct Laser Writing. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14122350. [PMID: 35745926 PMCID: PMC9229905 DOI: 10.3390/polym14122350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an abundance of plastic materials used in the widest range of applications, such as packaging, machine parts, biomedical devices and components, etc. However, most materials used today are non-decomposable in the environment, producing a huge burden on ecosystems. The search for better, safer alternatives is still on. Here we present a detailed analysis of a simple, cheap, non-toxic, even edible, eco-friendly material, which can be easily manufactured, laser patterned and used for the fabrication of complex structures. The base substance is gelatin which is made photoresponsive by adding plasticizers and sensitizers. The resulting films were analyzed with respect to their optical, thermal and mechanical properties, which can be modified by a slight variation of chemical composition. The material is optimized for rapid laser-manufacturing of elastic microstructures (lenses, gratings, cantilevers, etc.) without any waste or residues. Overall, the material properties were tailored to increase photothermal responsivity, improve the surface quality and achieve material homogeneity, transparency and long-term stability (as verified using electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry).
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Affiliation(s)
- Branka D. Murić
- Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.V.P.); (M.D.R.); (S.N.S.-Š.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Dejan V. Pantelić
- Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.V.P.); (M.D.R.); (S.N.S.-Š.)
| | - Mihajlo D. Radmilović
- Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.V.P.); (M.D.R.); (S.N.S.-Š.)
| | - Svetlana N. Savić-Šević
- Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade, Pregrevica 118, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia; (D.V.P.); (M.D.R.); (S.N.S.-Š.)
| | - Vesna O. Vasović
- Western Serbia Academy of Applied Studies, Užice Department, Trg Svetog Save 34, 31000 Užice, Serbia;
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10
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Interconnection of Few-Mode Fibers and Photonic Integrated Circuits Using Mode-Field Adapters. PHOTONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/photonics9050319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We propose a detailed method for the interconnection between optical fibers and waveguides of photonic integrated circuits. Appropriate modal transmission is accomplished by matching the mode field diameters from both waveguide structures. Links from one structure to another are created by an interconnecting waveguide, maintaining a fixed coupling efficiency as its size is modified to adjust to the target waveguide core. This tailored transition acts as a mode field adapter, equalizing the transmission among multiple modes and reducing the mode-dependent losses while coupling. We present an algorithm to design the mode field adapter based on matching the effective mode areas using the power overlap integral. A study case considering a polymer photonic integrated device immediately connected to a few-mode fiber is analyzed. Coupling efficiencies over 90% for every transmitted mode are achieved, showing an evident improvement compared to typical approaches only matching core sizes. Detailed comparison of the results for each transmission mode is presented. This same procedure can be used to interconnect optical waveguides with different refractive index profiles and core geometry.
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11
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Pitsalidis C, Pappa AM, Boys AJ, Fu Y, Moysidou CM, van Niekerk D, Saez J, Savva A, Iandolo D, Owens RM. Organic Bioelectronics for In Vitro Systems. Chem Rev 2021; 122:4700-4790. [PMID: 34910876 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Bioelectronics have made strides in improving clinical diagnostics and precision medicine. The potential of bioelectronics for bidirectional interfacing with biology through continuous, label-free monitoring on one side and precise control of biological activity on the other has extended their application scope to in vitro systems. The advent of microfluidics and the considerable advances in reliability and complexity of in vitro models promise to eventually significantly reduce or replace animal studies, currently the gold standard in drug discovery and toxicology testing. Bioelectronics are anticipated to play a major role in this transition offering a much needed technology to push forward the drug discovery paradigm. Organic electronic materials, notably conjugated polymers, having demonstrated technological maturity in fields such as solar cells and light emitting diodes given their outstanding characteristics and versatility in processing, are the obvious route forward for bioelectronics due to their biomimetic nature, among other merits. This review highlights the advances in conjugated polymers for interfacing with biological tissue in vitro, aiming ultimately to develop next generation in vitro systems. We showcase in vitro interfacing across multiple length scales, involving biological models of varying complexity, from cell components to complex 3D cell cultures. The state of the art, the possibilities, and the challenges of conjugated polymers toward clinical translation of in vitro systems are also discussed throughout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charalampos Pitsalidis
- Department of Physics, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi 127788, UAE.,Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K
| | - Anna-Maria Pappa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi 127788, UAE
| | - Alexander J Boys
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K
| | - Ying Fu
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K.,Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Technology and Innovation Centre, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1RD, U.K
| | - Chrysanthi-Maria Moysidou
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K
| | - Douglas van Niekerk
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K
| | - Janire Saez
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K.,Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, BIOMICs Microfluidics Group, Lascaray Research Center, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Miguel de Unamuno, 3, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.,Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, E-48011 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Achilleas Savva
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K
| | - Donata Iandolo
- INSERM, U1059 Sainbiose, Université Jean Monnet, Mines Saint-Étienne, Université de Lyon, 42023 Saint-Étienne, France
| | - Róisín M Owens
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K
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12
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Otuka AJG, Tomazio NB, Paula KT, Mendonça CR. Two-Photon Polymerization: Functionalized Microstructures, Micro-Resonators, and Bio-Scaffolds. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13121994. [PMID: 34207089 PMCID: PMC8234590 DOI: 10.3390/polym13121994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The direct laser writing technique based on two-photon polymerization (TPP) has evolved considerably over the past two decades. Its remarkable characteristics, such as 3D capability, sub-diffraction resolution, material flexibility, and gentle processing conditions, have made it suitable for several applications in photonics and biosciences. In this review, we present an overview of the progress of TPP towards the fabrication of functionalized microstructures, whispering gallery mode (WGM) microresonators, and microenvironments for culturing microorganisms. We also describe the key physical-chemical fundamentals underlying the technique, the typical experimental setups, and the different materials employed for TPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano J. G. Otuka
- Photonics Group, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos 13566-590, SP, Brazil; (N.B.T.); (K.T.P.)
- Correspondence: (A.J.G.O.); (C.R.M.)
| | - Nathália B. Tomazio
- Photonics Group, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos 13566-590, SP, Brazil; (N.B.T.); (K.T.P.)
- Device Research Laboratory, “Gleb Wataghin” Institute of Physics, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-859, SP, Brazil
| | - Kelly T. Paula
- Photonics Group, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos 13566-590, SP, Brazil; (N.B.T.); (K.T.P.)
| | - Cleber R. Mendonça
- Photonics Group, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Carlos 13566-590, SP, Brazil; (N.B.T.); (K.T.P.)
- Correspondence: (A.J.G.O.); (C.R.M.)
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13
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Vegetable Oil-Based Thiol-Ene/Thiol-Epoxy Resins for Laser Direct Writing 3D Micro-/Nano-Lithography. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13060872. [PMID: 33809044 PMCID: PMC8000864 DOI: 10.3390/polym13060872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of renewable sources for optical 3D printing instead of petroleum-based materials is increasingly growing. Combinations of photo- and thermal polymerization in dual curing processes can enhance the thermal and mechanical properties of the synthesized thermosets. Consequently, thiol-ene/thiol-epoxy polymers were obtained by combining UV and thermal curing of acrylated epoxidized soybean oil and epoxidized linseed oil with thiols, benzene-1,3-dithiol and pentaerythritol tetra(3-mercaptopropionate). Thiol-epoxy reaction was studied by calorimetry. The changes of rheological properties were examined during UV, thermal and dual curing to select the most suitable formulations for laser direct writing (LDW). The obtained polymers were characterized by dynamic-mechanical thermal analysis, thermogravimetry, and mechanical testing. The selected dual curable mixture was tested in LDW 3D lithography for validating its potential in optical micro- and nano-additive manufacturing. The obtained results demonstrated the suitability of epoxidized linseed oil as a biobased alternative to bisphenol A diglycidyl ether in thiol-epoxy thermal curing reactions. Dual cured thermosets showed higher rigidity, tensile strength, and Young’s modulus values compared with UV-cured thiol-ene polymers and the highest thermal stability from all prepared polymers. LDW results proved their suitability for high resolution 3D printing—individual features reaching an unprecedented 100 nm for plant-based materials. Finally, the biobased resin was tested for thermal post-treatment and 50% feature downscaling was achieved.
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Lay CL, Koh CSL, Lee YH, Phan-Quang GC, Sim HYF, Leong SX, Han X, Phang IY, Ling XY. Two-Photon-Assisted Polymerization and Reduction: Emerging Formulations and Applications. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:10061-10079. [PMID: 32040295 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b20911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon lithography (TPL) is an emerging approach to fabricate complex multifunctional micro/nanostructures. This is because TPL can easily develop various 2D and 3D structures on a variety of surfaces, and there has been a rapidly expanding pool of processable photoresists to create different materials. However, challenges in developing two-photon processable photoresists currently impede progress in TPL. In this review, we critically discuss the importance of photoresist formulation in TPL. We begin by evaluating the commercial photoresists to design micro/nanostructures for promising applications in anti-counterfeiting, superomniphobicity, and micromachines with movable parts. Next, we discuss emerging hydrogel/organogel photoresists, focusing on customizing photoresist formulations to fabricate reconfigurable structures that can respond to changes in local pH, solvent, and temperature. We also review the development of metal salt-based photoresists for direct metal writing, whereby various formulations have been developed to enable applications in online sensing, catalysis, and electronics. Finally, we provide a critical outlook and highlight various outstanding challenges in formulating processable photoresists for TPL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chee Leng Lay
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Charlynn Sher Lin Koh
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Yih Hong Lee
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Gia Chuong Phan-Quang
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Howard Yi Fan Sim
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Shi Xuan Leong
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Xuemei Han
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - In Yee Phang
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Xing Yi Ling
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637371, Singapore
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15
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Ando J, Kato A, Fukuda T, Emoto A. Decimating Spatial Frequency Components in Periodically Modulated Nanoscale Surface Structures for Sensing of Ambient Refractive Index Changes. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:3513-3521. [PMID: 32118166 PMCID: PMC7045494 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b03811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
In our previous study, we developed an array of unique porous structures (an array of barnacle-like porous structures) to apply to biosensing chips. The porous structure was formed by an internal swelling phenomenon of a polystyrene colloidal particle monolayer, which was surrounded by a poly(vinyl alcohol) layer, for the duration of the monolayer's immersion in a toluene bath. Barnacle-like porous structures were formed when polystyrene particles that had rapidly swelled broke the outer layer around the top of the particles. However, after the surface was coated with a thin Ag layer, the porous structure showed a relatively broad extinction spectrum that was undesirable for sensing chips based on both surface plasmon extinction and grating coupling. In this paper, we propose an approach to obtain relatively sharp extinction spectra based on the decimation of the spatial frequencies of the porous structures. This study also investigates formation properties in more detail to control the structural features of the resultant porous structures. A relatively sharp peak in the extinction spectrum was ultimately obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ando
- Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Doshisha
University, 1-3 Tatara-miyakodani, Kyotanabe, Kyoto 610-0321, Japan
| | - Aki Kato
- Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Doshisha
University, 1-3 Tatara-miyakodani, Kyotanabe, Kyoto 610-0321, Japan
| | - Takashi Fukuda
- Sensing
System Research Center, National Institute
of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan
| | - Akira Emoto
- Institute
of Post-LED Photonics (pLED), Tokushima
University, 2-1 Minami-Josanjima, Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8506, Japan
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16
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He X, Li T, Zhang J, Wang Z. STED Direct Laser Writing of 45 nm Width Nanowire. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:E726. [PMID: 31661815 PMCID: PMC6915467 DOI: 10.3390/mi10110726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Controlled fabrication of 45 nm width nanowire using simulated emission depletion (STED) direct laser writing with a rod-shape effective focus spot is presented. In conventional STED direct laser writing, normally a donut-shaped depletion focus is used, and the minimum linewidth is restricted to 55 nm. In this work, we push this limit to sub-50 nm dimension with a rod-shape effective focus spot, which is the combination of a Gaussian excitation focus and twin-oval depletion focus. Effects of photoinitiator type, excitation laser power, and depletion laser power on the width of the nanowire are explored, respectively. Single nanowire with 45 nm width is obtained, which is λ/18 of excitation wavelength and the minimum linewidth in pentaerythritol triacrylate (PETA) photoresist. Our result accelerates the progress of achievable linewidth reduction in STED direct laser writing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong He
- Key Laboratory of Micro-systems and Micro-structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150080, China.
- School of Mechatronics Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China.
| | - Tianlong Li
- Key Laboratory of Micro-systems and Micro-structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150080, China.
- School of Mechatronics Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China.
- Institute of Pharmacy, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Jia Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Micro-systems and Micro-structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150080, China.
- School of Mechatronics Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China.
| | - Zhenlong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Micro-systems and Micro-structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150080, China.
- School of Mechatronics Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China.
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