1
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Yousef S, Eimontas J, Stasiulaitiene I, Zakarauskas K, Striūgas N. Recovery of energy and carbon fibre from wind turbine blades waste (carbon fibre/unsaturated polyester resin) using pyrolysis process and its life-cycle assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 245:118016. [PMID: 38154563 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.118016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Recovery of carbon fibres and resin from wind turbine blade waste (WTB) composed of carbon fibres (CF)-reinforced unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) has been environmentally challenging due to its complex structure that is not biodegradable and that is rich in highly toxic styrene (main component of UPR). Within this framework, this paper aims to liberate CF and UPR from WTB using a pyrolysis process. The treatment was performed on commercial WTB (CF/UPR) up to 600 °C using a 250 g reactor. The UPR fraction was decomposed into liquid and gaseous phases, while CF remained as a residue. The composition of gaseous phase was monitored during the entire treatment using a digital gas analyser, while gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to characterize the collected liquid phase. CF fraction was collected and exposed to additional oxidation process after treatment at 450 °C for purification propose, then it was analysed using FTIR and SEM-EDX. Finally, the life cycle assessment (LCA) of the CF/UPR pyrolysis was studied using SimaPro software and the results were compared with landfill disposal practices. The pyrolysis results manifested that 500 °C was sufficient for UPR decomposition into styrene-rich oil and gaseous products with yields of 15.23 wt% and 6.83 wt%, respectively, accompanied by 77.93 wt% solid residue including CF. The LCA results showed that pyrolysis with oxidation process has high environmental potential in WTB recycling with significant reduction in several impact categories compared to landfill. However, the pyrolysis scenario revealed several additional environmental burdens related to ecosystems, acidification, Ozone formation, and fine particulate matter formation that must be overcome before upscaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samy Yousef
- Department of Production Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Design, Kaunas University of Technology, LT-51424 Kaunas, Lithuania.
| | - Justas Eimontas
- Lithuanian Energy Institute, Laboratory of Combustion Processes, Breslaujos 3, LT-44403 Kaunas, Lithuania.
| | - Inga Stasiulaitiene
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, LT-50254 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Kęstutis Zakarauskas
- Lithuanian Energy Institute, Laboratory of Combustion Processes, Breslaujos 3, LT-44403 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Nerijus Striūgas
- Lithuanian Energy Institute, Laboratory of Combustion Processes, Breslaujos 3, LT-44403 Kaunas, Lithuania
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2
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Watson J, Balmforth V, Gray E, Unthank MG. pH-Responsive, Thermoset Polymer Coatings for Active Protection against Aluminum Corrosion. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:12986-12995. [PMID: 38426266 PMCID: PMC10941078 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c14752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
This paper describes the synthesis and use of multifunctional methacrylic monomers, which contain basic (amine) functional groups, including an example in which an acid-labile tert-butylcarbamate-protected glycine is used to form a novel methacrylic monomer. The "protected" amino acid-derived functional monomer (BOC-Gly-MA) is copolymerized with an epoxide functional methacrylic monomer (GMA), to deliver novel multifunctional polymers, which are processed into powder coatings and used to study filiform corrosion at the surface of an aluminum substrate. The BOC-Gly-MA-containing copolymers were shown to improve a coating's anticorrosion performance, presenting the lowest average filiform corrosion (FFC) track length, total FFC number, and total corroded surface area (CSA) of the coatings investigated. Further to this, a mode of action for the role of BOC-Gly functional polymers in corrosion protection is proposed, supported by both solution and polymer-aluminum interface studies, delivering new insights into the mode of action of pH-responsive polymer coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Watson
- Northumbria
University, Newcastle
upon Tyne NE1 8ST, U.K.
| | - Victoria Balmforth
- AkzoNobel,
Polymer Development Group, Stoneygate Lane, Felling, Tyne & Wear NE10 0JY, U.K.
| | - Elaine Gray
- AkzoNobel,
Polymer Development Group, Stoneygate Lane, Felling, Tyne & Wear NE10 0JY, U.K.
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3
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Si G, Li C, Chen M, Chen C. Polymer Multi-Block and Multi-Block + Strategies for the Upcycling of Mixed Polyolefins and Other Plastics. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202311733. [PMID: 37850388 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202311733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
Due to a continued rise in the production and use of plastic products, their end-of-life pollution has become a pressing global issue. One of the biggest challenges in plastics recycling is the separation of different polymers. Multi-block copolymers (MBCPs) represent an efficient strategy for the upcycling of mixed plastics via induced compatibilization, but this approach is limited by difficulties associated with synthesis and structural modification. In this contribution, several synthetic strategies are explored to prepare MBCPs with tunable microstructures, which were then used as compatibilizer additives to upcycle mixtures of polyolefins with other plastics. A multi-block+ strategy based on a reactive telechelic block copolymer platform was introduced, which enabled block extension during the in situ melt blending of mixed plastics, leading to better compatibilizing properties as well as better 3D printing capability. This strategy was also applicable to more complex ternary plastic blends. The polymer multi-block strategy enabled by versatile MBCPs synthesis and the multi-block+ strategy enabled by in situ block extension show exciting opportunities for the upcycling of mixed plastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guifu Si
- Key Laboratory of Precision and Intelligent Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Chao Li
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Key Laboratory of Structure and Functional Regulation of Hybrid Materials of Ministry of Education, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, China
| | - Min Chen
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Key Laboratory of Structure and Functional Regulation of Hybrid Materials of Ministry of Education, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui 230601, China
| | - Changle Chen
- Key Laboratory of Precision and Intelligent Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
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4
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Chu F, Wang W, Zhou Y, Xu Z, Zou B, Jiang X, Hu Y, Hu W. Fully bio-based and intrinsically flame retardant unsaturated polyester cross-linked with isosorbide-based diluents. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 344:140371. [PMID: 37820874 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Unsaturated polyester resins (UPR) are composed of prepolymers and styrene diluents, while the former are produced by co-polycondensation between diol, unsaturated diacid and saturated diacid. In this work, bio-based UPR prepolymers were synthesized from bio-based oxalic acid, itaconic acid, and ethylene glycol, which were then diluted with bio-based isosorbide methacrylate (MI). Meanwhile, the phenylphosphonate were introduced into the molecular chains of prepolymers to achieve intrinsic flame retardancy of bio-based UPR. The potential of the reactive MI diluents as substitutes of volatile styrene, was also assessed through the volatility test, curing kinetics and gel contents analysis. For UPR materials with styrene diluents, the UPR materials can achieve UL-94 V0 level and the 28% of limiting oxygen index (LOI) with 2.63 wt% of phosphorus contents. By contrast, the UPR materials with MI diluents can reach UL-94 V0 level with only 2.14 wt% of phosphorus contents. As the phosphorus contents were further increased to 2.63 wt%, UPR materials can achieve highest 29%, while the peak of heat release rate (PHRR) and total heat release (THR) were decreased by 68.01% and 48.62%, respectively. The Flame Retardancy Index (FRI) was also used to comprehensively evaluate the flame retardant performance of UPR composites. Compared with neat UPR, the composites with MI diluents and phosphorus containing structures increased from 1.00 to 6.46. The mechanism for improved flame retardancy was analyzed from gaseous and condensed phase. Additionally, the tensile strengths of bio-based UPR materials with styrene and MI diluents were studied. This work provides an effective method to prepared high-performance and fully bio-based UPR materials with improved flame retardant properties and safety application of reactive diluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fukai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China.
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Australia
| | - Yifan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Zhoumei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Bin Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Xin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Yandong Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China
| | - Weizhao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, PR China.
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5
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Lokhande P, Dhepe PL. Selective and Robust Ru Catalyst for the Aqueous Phase Aerobic Oxidation of Furfural to 2-Furoic Acid. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:47004-47015. [PMID: 37751496 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c09965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Synthesis of 2-furoic acid (FURA) via oxidation of furfural (FAL) is vital in evolving the biorefinery concept as FURA has numerous important applications in the pharmaceuticals and optic areas. Though few works on this reaction are done, those are marred with shortcomings such as the nonrecyclability of catalyst, dilute solutions, lower yields, or use of H2O2 as an oxidizing agent. Herein, we report catalytic aqueous phase oxidation of FAL to FURA using molecular oxygen as an oxidizing agent. For the synthesis of FURA, various catalysts with a combination of metal (Pt, Pd, Ru) and supports (carbon, Al2O3) were prepared and characterized by multiple techniques (X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)). Oxidation of FAL carried out over 5 wt % Ru/C catalyst in the presence of Na2CO3 yielded 83% of FURA at 120 °C and 15 bar oxygen pressure. The catalyst could show potential for reusability as similar activity was achieved after subjecting the spent catalyst to mild reduction treatment (150 °C). Studies on the effects of temperature, pressure, and time could help accomplish enhanced yields of FURA. Additionally, learning about the effect of base (weak/strong/solid) revealed that due to the weak basicity of Na2CO3, higher yields could be achieved by maintaining approximately a pH of 11, which is optimal for suppressing side reactions. Under the given conditions, FURA is stable (>90%) and also adsorption studies divulge that it is immediately removed from the catalyst surface, and hence higher yields could be achieved in our catalytic system. Using the initial rates methodology, an activation energy of 21.91 kJ mol-1 was derived and also a high turn over frequency (TOF) (85.9 h-1) was observed under optimized conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Lokhande
- Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Paresh L Dhepe
- Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
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6
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Jašek V, Fučík J, Krhut J, Mravcova L, Figalla S, Přikryl R. A Study of Isosorbide Synthesis from Sorbitol for Material Applications Using Isosorbide Dimethacrylate for Enhancement of Bio-Based Resins. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3640. [PMID: 37688269 PMCID: PMC10490356 DOI: 10.3390/polym15173640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Bio-based cross-linkers can fulfill the role of enhancing additives in bio-sourced curable materials that do not compare with artificial resin precursors. Isosorbide dimethacrylate (ISDMMA) synthesized from isosorbide (ISD) can serve as a cross-linker from renewable sources. Isosorbide is a bicyclic carbon molecule produced by the reaction modification of sorbitol and the optimal conditions of this reaction were studied in this work. The reaction temperature of 130 °C and 1% w/w amount of para-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TSA) were determined as optimal and resulted in a yield of 81.9%. Isosorbide dimethacrylate was synthesized via nucleophilic substitution with methacrylic anhydride (MAA) with the conversion of 94.1% of anhydride. Formed ISD and ISDMMA were characterized via multiple verification methods (FT-IR, MS, 1H NMR, and XRD). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) proved the curability of ISDMMA (activation energy Ea of 146.2 kJ/mol) and the heat-resistant index of ISDMMA (Ts reaching value of 168.9) was determined using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Characterized ISDMMA was added to the precursor mixture containing methacrylated alkyl 3-hydroxybutyrates (methyl ester M3HBMMA and ethyl ester E3HBMMA), and the mixtures were cured via photo-initiation. The amount of ISDMMA cross-linker increased all measured parameters obtained via dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), such as storage modulus (E') and glass transition temperature (Tg), and the calculated cross-linking densities (νe). Therefore, the enhancement influence of bio-based ISDMMA on resins from renewable sources was confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vojtěch Jašek
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, 61200 Brno, Czech Republic; (S.F.); (R.P.)
| | - Jan Fučík
- Institute of Environmental Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, 61200 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.F.); (L.M.)
| | - Jiří Krhut
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, 61200 Brno, Czech Republic; (S.F.); (R.P.)
| | - Ludmila Mravcova
- Institute of Environmental Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, 61200 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.F.); (L.M.)
| | - Silvestr Figalla
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, 61200 Brno, Czech Republic; (S.F.); (R.P.)
| | - Radek Přikryl
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Brno University of Technology, 61200 Brno, Czech Republic; (S.F.); (R.P.)
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7
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Naguib HM. Recycled polyester filled with eggshells waste-based nano CaCO 3: thermo-mechanical and flame-retardant features. NEW J CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1039/d3nj00538k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Improved environmental-friendly fire-retardant nanocomposite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamdy M. Naguib
- Department of Petroleum Applications, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute (EPRI), Nasr City 11727, Cairo, Egypt
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Technology in Environmental Protection of Jiangsu Province, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Yancheng 224051, Jiangsu Province, China
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8
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Styrene-Free Bio-Based Thermosetting Resins with Tunable Properties Starting from Vegetable Oils and Terpenes. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14194185. [PMID: 36236131 PMCID: PMC9572440 DOI: 10.3390/polym14194185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The substitution of fossil-based monomers in the thermosetting formulations is a fundamental issue to face the environmental concerns related to the use of traditional resins. In this paper, styrene-free thermosetting resins were prepared to start from vegetable oils with different compositions and unsaturation degrees, namely soybean, hempseed, and linseed oils. Using terpenic comonomers such as limonene and β-myrcene allows one to prepare thermosets avoiding the traditional fossil-based diluents such as styrene, thus obtaining an outstanding gain in terms of both environmental and safety concerns. Furthermore, the materials obtained reveal tunable physical properties upon the proper choice of the monomers, with glass transition temperature ranging from 40 to 80 °C and Young's modulus ranging from 200 to 1800 MPa. The possibility of preparing composite materials starting from the resins prepared in this way and natural fibres has also been explored due to the potential applications of bio-based composites in several industrial sectors.
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9
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Thomas J, Soucek MD. Cationic Copolymers of Norbornylized Seed Oils for Fiber-Reinforced Composite Applications. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:33949-33962. [PMID: 36188245 PMCID: PMC9520558 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c02569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Norbornylized seed oils, i.e., norbornylized linseed oil (NLO), norbornylized soybean oil (NSO), and norbornylized high oleic soybean oil (NHOSO), were synthesized via the Diels-Alder reaction of seed oil and dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) at high temperature (∼235 °C) and high pressure (∼80 psi), followed by cationic copolymerization using DCPD with boron trifluoride diethyl etherate catalyst. Norbornylized seed oils were characterized using H1 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Copolymers were formulated with four different DCPD contents, and curing was investigated using dynamic differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements. It was found that the curing followed NLO > NSO > NHOSO with NLO having the highest exotherm, lowest activation energy, and lowest onset temperature. Furthermore, the gelation times were the least for NLO-DCPD copolymers. As anticipated, the degree of unsaturation and norbornene moieties strongly influenced the curing of copolymer thermosets. The copolymer products were compression-molded into thermosets and characterized by DSC, Soxhlet extraction, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), H1 NMR, solid-state C13 NMR, and GPC. NLO-DCPD thermosets demonstrated high cure, higher thermal stability, glass transition temperature, and cross-linking capability compared to the other seed oil-DCPD counterparts. NMR and GPC results further suggested that bis-allylic and norbornene units concomitantly participated very actively during the cationic curing reaction. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy images of glass fiber-reinforced NLO-DCPD copolymer composites demonstrated good interfacial adhesion between the polymer matrix and fiber phases, imparting enhanced thermo-mechanical properties. This research opens a new venue for higher biobased greener polymer constituent for composite applications.
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10
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Characterization of Polyester Coatings Intended for Food Contact by Different Analytical Techniques and Migration Testing by LC-MS n. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14030487. [PMID: 35160476 PMCID: PMC8839341 DOI: 10.3390/polym14030487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Polymeric coating formulations may contain different components such as cross-linking agents, resins, lubricants, and solvents, among others. If the reaction process or curing conditions are not applied in a proper way, these components may remain unreacted in the polymeric network and could be released and migrate into foods. In this study, several polyester coatings intended for food contact were investigated. Firstly, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy with an attenuated total reflectance (ATR-FTIR) spectrometer and confocal Raman microscopy were used to identify the type of coating. Then, different techniques, including gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS), among others, were used to investigate the potential volatile and non-volatile migrants. Moreover, migration assays were carried out to evaluate the presence of monomers and to tentatively identify possible oligomers below 1000 Da. The analyses were performed by liquid chromatography coupled to ion trap mass spectrometry (LC-MSn). Using the information collected from each analytical technique, it was possible to elucidate some of the starting substances used in the formulation of the polyester coatings analyzed in this study. In migration tests, several polyester oligomers were tentatively identified for which there is not toxicological data available and, therefore, no migration limits established to date.
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Synthesis of Epoxy Methacrylate Resin and Coatings Preparation by Cationic and Radical Photocrosslinking. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26247663. [PMID: 34946745 PMCID: PMC8706006 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26247663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
This work involves the synthesis of hybrid oligomers based on the epoxy methacrylate resin. The EA resin was obtained by the modification of industrial-grade bisphenol A-based epoxy resin and methacrylic acid has been synthesized in order to develop multifunctional resins comprising both epoxide group and reactive, terminal unsaturation. Owing to the presence of both epoxy and double carbon–carbon pendant groups, the reaction product exhibits photocrosslinking via two distinct mechanisms: (i) cationic ring-opening polymerization and (ii) free radical polymerization. Monitoring of EA synthesis reactions over time using PAVs, MAAC and NV parameters, and the FT-IR method reveals that esterification reactions proceed faster at the start, exhibiting over 40% of conversion within the initial 60 min, which can be associated with a relatively high concentration of reactive sites and low viscosity of the reaction mixture at the initial reaction stage. With the further increase in the reaction time, the reaction rate tends to decrease. The control of the EA synthesis process can guide how to adjust reactions to obtain EAs with desired characteristics. Based on obtained values, one can state that the optimum synthesis time of about 4–5 h should be adopted to prepare EAs having both epoxy groups and unsaturated double bonds. The structure of the obtained EA was confirmed by FT-IR and NMR methods, as well as the determination of partial acid value and epoxy equivalent. Samples at various stages of synthesis were cured with UV radiation in order to study the kinetics of the process according to cationic and radical polymerization determined via photo-differential scanning calorimetry (photo-DSC) and real-time infrared spectroscopy (RT-IR) and then the properties of the cured coatings were tested. It turned out that the cationic polymerization was slower with a lower conversion of the photoreactive groups, as compared to the radical polymerization. All the obtained EA coatings were characterized by good properties of cured coatings and can be successfully used in the coating-forming sector.
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Kury M, Ehrmann K, Harakály GA, Gorsche C, Liska R. Low volatile monofunctional reactive diluents for radiation curable formulations. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Kury
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry Technische Universität Wien Vienna Austria
| | - Katharina Ehrmann
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry Technische Universität Wien Vienna Austria
| | | | - Christian Gorsche
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry Technische Universität Wien Vienna Austria
| | - Robert Liska
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry Technische Universität Wien Vienna Austria
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13
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Lee CH, Khalina A, Nurazzi NM, Norli A, Harussani MM, Rafiqah SA, Aisyah HA, Ramli N. The Challenges and Future Perspective of Woven Kenaf Reinforcement in Thermoset Polymer Composites in Malaysia: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1390. [PMID: 33922885 PMCID: PMC8123178 DOI: 10.3390/polym13091390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, the challenges faced by woven kenaf thermoset polymer composites in Malaysia were addressed with respect to three major aspects: woven kenaf reinforcement quality, Malaysian citizen awareness of woven kenaf thermoset composite products, and government supports. Kenaf plantations were introduced in Malaysia in the last two decades, but have generally not produced much kenaf composite product that has been widely accepted by the public. However, woven kenaf fiber enhances the thermoset composites to a similar degree or better than other natural fibers, especially with respect to impact resistance. Woven kenaf composites have been applied in automotive structural studies in Malaysia, yet they are still far from commercialization. Hence, this review discusses the kenaf fiber woven in Malaysia, thermoset and bio-based thermoset polymers, thermoset composite processing methods and, most importantly, the challenges faced in Malaysia. This review sets guidelines, provides an overview, and shares knowledge as to the potential challenges currently faced by woven kenaf reinforcements in thermoset polymer composites, allowing researchers to shift their interests and plans for conducting future studies on woven kenaf thermoset polymer composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching Hao Lee
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Tropical Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (S.A.R.); (H.A.A.); (N.R.)
| | - Abdan Khalina
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Tropical Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (S.A.R.); (H.A.A.); (N.R.)
| | - N. Mohd Nurazzi
- Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (N.M.N.); (A.N.)
| | - Abdullah Norli
- Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (N.M.N.); (A.N.)
| | - M. M. Harussani
- Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites (AEMC), Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
| | - S. Ayu Rafiqah
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Tropical Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (S.A.R.); (H.A.A.); (N.R.)
| | - H. A. Aisyah
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Tropical Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (S.A.R.); (H.A.A.); (N.R.)
| | - Natasha Ramli
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Tropical Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (S.A.R.); (H.A.A.); (N.R.)
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Stuck M, Krenz I, Schulze Kökelsum B, Boye S, Voit B, Lorenz R. Improving glass transition temperature of unsaturated polyester thermosets: Conventional unsaturated polyester resins. J Appl Polym Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/app.49825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Stuck
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Applied Science Münster Münster Germany
- Institut für Makromolekulare Chemie Leibniz‐Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden Dresden Germany
- Organische Chemie der Polymere Technische Universität Dresden Dresden Germany
| | - Irina Krenz
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Applied Science Münster Münster Germany
| | | | - Susanne Boye
- Institut für Makromolekulare Chemie Leibniz‐Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden Dresden Germany
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Institut für Makromolekulare Chemie Leibniz‐Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden Dresden Germany
- Organische Chemie der Polymere Technische Universität Dresden Dresden Germany
| | - Reinhard Lorenz
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Applied Science Münster Münster Germany
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