Effect of Cellulose and Cellulose Nanocrystal Contents on the Biodegradation, under Composting Conditions, of Hierarchical PLA Biocomposites

Investigating interface adhesion of PLA-coated cellulose paper straws: Degradation, plant growth effects, and life cycle assessment

Although bioplastics and paper straws have been introduced as alternatives to single-use plastic straws, their potential environmental, economic, and social impacts have not been analyzed. This study addresses this gap by designing a polylactic acid layer interface adhesion on cellulose paper-based (PLA-P) composite straws by a dip molding process. This process is simple, efficient, and scalable for massive production. Optimizing key manufacturing parameters, including ice bath ultrasonic, overlapping paper strips (2 strips), winding angle (60°), soaking time (5 min), and drying temperature (50 °C), were systematically evaluated to improve straw quality and manufacturing efficiency. PLA chains were found to deposit onto the cellulose network through intermolecular interactions to form a consistent "sandwich" structure, which can improve adhesion, water resistance, and mechanical properties. Interestingly, PLA-P straws effectively decomposed in soil and compost environments, with a 35-40 % degradation rate within 4 months. Besides, PLA-P straw residues affected seed germination and plant growth, but no significant toxic effects were detected. Further, microplastics were observed in soil and plant tissues (roots, stems, and leaves), and their possible diffusion mechanisms were explored. The results of a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) and cost analysis showed that the process improvements reduced the ecological footprint of PLA-P straws and showed good prospects for commercial application. The study's findings contribute to the understanding of bioplastics and paper straws in effectively reducing environmental impact and fostering sustainable development.

Decoding the complex interplay of biological and chemical factors in Polylactic acid biodegradation: A systematic review

Polylactic Acid is a sustainable, compostable bioplastic that requires specific geoenvironmental conditions for degradation. The complexity of managing the PLA waste has limited the scope of its seamless application. There have been a significant number of studies exploring PLA degradation. Majorly they have explored degradability as a material property with limited discussions on the fundamental factors affecting degradation. The knowledge of the influence of biotic and abiotic factors and their complex interplay is critical for enhancing PLA degradation research, specifically accelerated degradation. This understanding is necessary for PLA waste upcycling and generating industrial-scale value-added products. Using the PRISMA framework, a database of articles on PLA degradation (1974-2023) has been created with each entry being annotated with 11 critical parameters depending on the scale and scope of the research. Abiotic hydrolysis, biotic hydrolysis and assimilation of PLA were discussed in detail with information on experiment design analytical techniques and background mechanisms to achieve systematic recommendations. Enzymes responsible for PLA degradation have been categorised and catalogued. The review highlights the need for future research related to PLA degradation in terms of molecular mechanisms of enzymatic degradation, bioengineering enzymes for accelerating degradation, and mathematical models for predicting degradation kinetics in complex environmental conditions.

Lab-scale and full-scale industrial composting of biodegradable plastic blends for packaging

Background

The acceptance of compostable plastic packaging in industrial composting plants is not universal despite available certification due to the persistence of plastic residues after composting. To better understand this discrepancy, this study compared the disintegration rates of two blends designed for rigid packaging (polylactic acid based) and soft packaging (polybutylene succinate based) in lab-scale composting tests and in an industrial composting plant.

Methods

A lab-scale composting test was conducted in triplicates according to ISO 20200 for 4, 8 and 12 weeks to check the disintegration potential of the blends. Duplicate test material were then exposed in the compost pile of an industrial composting plant for a duration of 3 weeks and compared with a supplementary lab-scale test of the same duration.

Results

The rigid packaging samples (1 mm thickness) retained on average 76.4%, 59.0% and 55.7% of its mass after 4, 8 and 12 weeks respectively in the lab-scale. In the plant, the average remaining mass was 98.3%, much higher compared to the average of 68.9% after 3 weeks in the supplementary lab-scale test. The soft packaging samples (109±9 µm sample thickness) retained on average 45.4%, 10.9% and 0.3% of its mass after 4, 8 and 12 weeks respectively in the lab-scale. In the plant, a high average remaining mass was also observed (93.9%). The supplementary lab-scale test showed similar remaining mass but higher fragmentation after 3 weeks.

Conclusions

The results show that the samples achieved significant disintegration in the lab-scale but not in the plant. The difference between the tests that might further contribute to the differing degradation rates is the composition and heterogeneity of the composting substrate. Therefore, the substrate composition and thermophilic composting duration of individual plants are important considerations to determine the suitability of treating compostable plastic in real-world conditions.

Biodegradation behavior of acetylated lignin added polylactic acid under thermophilic composting conditions

Acetylated lignin (AL) can improve compatibility with commercial plastic polymers compared to existing lignin and can be used as an effective additive for eco-friendly biocomposites. For this reason, AL can be effectively incorporated into polylactic acid (PLA)-based biocomposites, but its biodegradation properties have not been investigated. In this study, biodegradation experiments were performed under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions to determine the effect of AL addition on the biodegradation characteristics of PLA-based biocomposites. As a result, the PLA-based biocomposite showed a faster biodegradation rate in a thermophilic composting environment, which is higher than the glass transition temperature of PLA, compared to a mesophilic environment. 16S rDNA sequencing results showed that differences in microbial communities depending on mesophilic and thermophilic environments strongly affected the biodegradation rate of lignin/PLA biocomposites. Importantly, the addition of AL can effectively delay the thermophilic biodegradation of PLA biocomposites. As a result of tracking the changes in physicochemical properties according to the biodegradation period in a thermophilic composting environment, the main biodegradation mechanism of AL/PLA biocomposite hydrolysis. It proceeded with cleavage of the PLA molecular chain, preferential biodegradation of the amorphous region, and additional biodegradation of the crystalline region. Above all, adding AL can be proposed as an effective additive because it can minimize the decline in the mechanical properties of PLA and delay the biodegradation rate more effectively compared to existing kraft lignin (KL).

Assessing the Effect of Cellulose Nanocrystal Content on the Biodegradation Kinetics of Multiscale Polylactic Acid Composites under Controlled Thermophilic Composting Conditions

This work studied the effect of cellulose nanocrystal (NCC) content on the biodegradation kinetics of PLA-based multiscale cellulosic biocomposites (PLAMCBs). To facilitate biodegradation, the materials were subjected to thermo-oxidation before composting. Biodegradation was carried out for 180 days under controlled thermophilic composting conditions according to the ASTM D 5338 standard. A first-order model based on Monod's kinetics under limiting substrate conditions was used to study the effect of cellulose nanocrystal (NCC) content on the biodegradation kinetics of multiscale composite materials. It was found that thermo-oxidation at 70 °C for 160 h increased the biodegradability of PLA. Also, it was found that the incorporation of cellulosic fibrous reinforcements increased the biodegradability of PLA by promoting hydrolysis during the first stage of composting. Likewise, it was found that partial substitution of micro cellulose (MFC) by cellulose nanocrystals (NCCs) increased the biodegradability of the biocomposite. This increase was more evident as the NCC content increased, which was attributed to the fact that the incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals facilitated the entry of water into the material and therefore promoted the hydrolytic degradation of the most recalcitrant fraction of PLA from the bulk and not only by surface erosion.

Degradation of Cellulose Derivatives in Laboratory, Man-Made, and Natural Environments

Biodegradable polymers complement recyclable materials in battling plastic waste because some products are difficult to recycle and some will end up in the environment either because of their application or due to wear of the products. Natural biopolymers, such as cellulose, are inherently biodegradable, but chemical modification typically required for the obtainment of thermoplastic properties, solubility, or other desired material properties can hinder or even prevent the biodegradation process. This Review summarizes current knowledge on the degradation of common cellulose derivatives in different laboratory, natural, and man-made environments. Depending on the environment, the degradation can be solely biodegradation or a combination of several processes, such as chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis, photodegradation, and oxidation. It is clear that the type of modification and especially the degree of substitution are important factors controlling the degradation process of cellulose derivatives in combination with the degradation environment. The big variation of conditions in different environments is also briefly considered as well as the importance of the proper testing environment, characterization of the degradation process, and confirmation of biodegradability. To ensure full sustainability of the new cellulose derivatives under development, the expected end-of-life scenario, whether material recycling or "biological" recycling, should be included as an important design parameter.