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Zadeike D, Degutyte R. Recent Advances in Acoustic Technology in Food Processing. Foods 2023; 12:3365. [PMID: 37761074 PMCID: PMC10530031 DOI: 10.3390/foods12183365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of food industry technologies and increasing the sustainability and effectiveness of processing comprise some of the relevant objectives of EU policy. Furthermore, advances in the development of innovative non-thermal technologies can meet consumers' demand for high-quality, safe, nutritious, and minimally processed foods. Acoustic technology is characterized as environmentally friendly and is considered an alternative method due to its sustainability and economic efficiency. This technology provides advantages such as the intensification of processes, increasing the efficiency of processes and eliminating inefficient ones, improving product quality, maintaining the product's texture, organoleptic properties, and nutritional value, and ensuring the microbiological safety of the product. This review summarizes some important applications of acoustic technology in food processing, from monitoring the safety of raw materials and products, intensifying bioprocesses, increasing the effectiveness of the extraction of valuable food components, modifying food polymers' texture and technological properties, to developing biodegradable biopolymer-based composites and materials for food packaging, along with the advantages and challenges of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiva Zadeike
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, 50254 Kaunas, Lithuania;
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Acoustic Emission Signal Characterisation of Failure Mechanisms in CFRP Composites Using Dual-Sensor Approach and Spectral Clustering Technique. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010047. [PMID: 36616397 PMCID: PMC9824554 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The characterisation of failure mechanisms in carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials using the acoustic emission (AE) technique has been the topic of a number of publications. However, it is often challenging to obtain comprehensive and reliable information about individual failure mechanisms. This situation was the impetus for elaborating a comprehensive overview that covers all failure mechanisms within the framework of CFRP materials. Thus, we performed tensile and compact tension tests on specimens with various stacking sequences to induce specific failure modes and mechanisms. The AE activity was monitored using two different wideband AE sensors and further analysed using a hybrid AE hit detection process. The datasets received from both sensors were separately subjected to clustering analysis using the spectral clustering technique, which incorporated an unsupervised k-means clustering algorithm. The failure mechanism analysis also included a proposed filtering process based on the power distribution across the considered frequency range, with which it was possible to distinguish between the fibre pull-out and fibre breakage mechanisms. This functionality was particularly useful in cases where it was evident that the above-mentioned damage mechanisms exhibited very similar parametric characteristics. The results of the clustering analysis were compared to those of the scanning electron microscopy analysis, which confirmed the conclusions of the AE data analysis.
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Maccaferri E, Mazzocchetti L, Benelli T, Ortolani J, Brugo TM, Zucchelli A, Giorgini L. Is Graphene Always Effective in Reinforcing Composites? The Case of Highly Graphene-Modified Thermoplastic Nanofibers and Their Unfortunate Application in CFRP Laminates. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14245565. [PMID: 36559932 PMCID: PMC9781409 DOI: 10.3390/polym14245565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Graphene (G) can effectively enhance polymers' and polymer composites' electric, thermal, and mechanical properties. Nanofibrous mats have been demonstrated to significantly increase the interlaminar fracture toughness of composite laminates, hindering delamination and, consequently, making such materials safer and more sustainable thanks to increased service life. In the present paper, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polycaprolactone (PCL), and Nylon 66 nanofibers, plain or reinforced with G, were integrated into epoxy-matrix Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) to evaluate the effect of polymers and polymers + G on the laminate mechanical properties. The main aim of this work is to compare the reinforcing action of the different nanofibers (polyether, polyester, and polyamide) and to disclose the effect of G addition. The polymers were chosen considering their thermal properties and, consequently, their mechanism of action against delamination. PEO and PCL, displaying a low melting temperature, melt, and mix during the curing cycle, act via matrix toughening; in this context, they are also used as tools to deploy G specifically in the interlaminar region when melting and mixing with epoxy resin. The high extent of modification stems from an attempt to deploy it in the interlaminar layer, thus diluting further in the resin. In contrast, Nylon 66 does not melt and maintain the nanostructure, allowing laminate toughening via nanofiber bridging. The flexural properties of the nanomodifed CFRPs were determined via a three-point bending (3PB) test, while delamination behavior in Mode I and Mode II was carried out using Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) and End-Notched Flexture (ENF) tests, respectively. The lack of a positive contribution of G in this context is an interesting point to raise in the field of nanoreinforced CFRP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Maccaferri
- Department of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy
- Correspondence: (E.M.); (L.M.)
| | - Laura Mazzocchetti
- Department of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology (CIRI-MAM), University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Correspondence: (E.M.); (L.M.)
| | - Tiziana Benelli
- Department of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology (CIRI-MAM), University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Jacopo Ortolani
- Department of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology (CIRI-MAM), University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Tommaso Maria Brugo
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology (CIRI-MAM), University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea Zucchelli
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology (CIRI-MAM), University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Loris Giorgini
- Department of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology (CIRI-MAM), University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
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Maccaferri E, Dalle Donne M, Mazzocchetti L, Benelli T, Brugo TM, Zucchelli A, Giorgini L. Rubber-enhanced polyamide nanofibers for a significant improvement of CFRP interlaminar fracture toughness. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21426. [PMID: 36504116 PMCID: PMC9742143 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25287-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanofibrous mats provide substantial delamination hindering in composite laminates, especially if the polymer (as rubbers) can directly toughen the composite resin. Here, the well-known Nylon 66 nanofibers were impregnated with Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (NBR) for producing rubber/thermoplastic membranes for hampering the delamination of epoxy Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs). The starting polyamide mats were electrospun using two different solvent systems, and their effect on the mat's thermal and mechanical properties was investigated, as well as the laminate Mode I delamination resistance via Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) tests. Plain Nylon 66 mats electrospun from formic acid/chloroform perform better than the ones obtained from a solvent system containing trifluoroacetic acid, showing up to + 64% vs + 53% in interlaminar fracture toughness (GI), respectively. The effect of NBR coating benefits both nanofiber types, significantly raising the GI. The best results are obtained when interleaving medium-thickness and lightweight mats (20 µm, 9-10 g/m2) with 70-80 wt% of loaded rubber, achieving up to + 180% in GI. The work demonstrates the ability of NBR at improving the delamination hindering of common polyamide nonwovens, paving the way to the use of NBR-coated Nylon 66 nanofibers as effective interleaves for GI enhancement and overall composite safety improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Maccaferri
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Matteo Dalle Donne
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Laura Mazzocchetti
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136, Bologna, Italy.
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Tiziana Benelli
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Tommaso Maria Brugo
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea Zucchelli
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Loris Giorgini
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, 40136, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
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Maccaferri E, Ortolani J, Mazzocchetti L, Benelli T, Brugo TM, Zucchelli A, Giorgini L. New Application Field of Polyethylene Oxide: PEO Nanofibers as Epoxy Toughener for Effective CFRP Delamination Resistance Improvement. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:23189-23200. [PMID: 35847344 PMCID: PMC9281329 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c01189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Delamination is the most severe weakness affecting all composite materials with a laminar structure. Nanofibrous mat interleaving is a smart way to increase the interlaminar fracture toughness: the use of thermoplastic polymers, such as poly(ε-caprolactone) and polyamides (Nylons), as nonwovens is common and well established. Here, electrospun polyethylene oxide (PEO) nanofibers are proposed as reinforcing layers for hindering delamination in epoxy-based carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates. While PEO nanofibers are well known and successfully applied in medicine and healthcare, to date, their use as composite tougheners is undiscovered, resulting in the first investigation in this application field. The PEO-modified CFRP laminate shows a significant improvement in the interlaminar fracture toughness under Mode I loading: +60% and +221% in G I,C and G I,R, respectively. The high matrix toughening is confirmed by the crack path analysis, showing multiple crack planes, and by the delamination surfaces, revealing that extensive phase separation phenomena occur. Under Mode II loading, the G II enhancement is almost 20%. Despite a widespread phase separation occurring upon composite curing, washings in water do not affect the surface delamination morphology, suggesting a sufficient humidity resistance of the PEO-modified laminate. Moreover, it almost maintains both the original stiffness and glass transition temperature (T g), as assessed via three-point bending and dynamic mechanical analysis tests. The achieved results pave the way for using PEO nanofibrous membranes as a new effective solution for hindering delamination in epoxy-based composite laminates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Maccaferri
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, Bologna 40136, Italy
| | - Jacopo Ortolani
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, Bologna 40136, Italy
- Interdepartmental
Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical
Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
| | - Laura Mazzocchetti
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, Bologna 40136, Italy
- Interdepartmental
Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical
Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
| | - Tiziana Benelli
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, Bologna 40136, Italy
- Interdepartmental
Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical
Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
| | - Tommaso Maria Brugo
- Interdepartmental
Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical
Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
- Department
of Industrial Engineering, University of
Bologna, Viale Risorgimento
2, Bologna 40136, Italy
| | - Andrea Zucchelli
- Interdepartmental
Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical
Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
- Department
of Industrial Engineering, University of
Bologna, Viale Risorgimento
2, Bologna 40136, Italy
| | - Loris Giorgini
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 4, Bologna 40136, Italy
- Interdepartmental
Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical
Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna 40136, Italy
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