Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems: An Inspiring Therapeutic Strategy for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Current status of nanoparticle-mediated immunogenic cell death in cancer immunotherapy

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) encompasses various forms of cell death modalities, including apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis. It arises from a harmonious interplay of adjuvant (damage-associated molecular patterns-DAMPs and chemokines/cytokines) and antigenicity (tumor-associated antigens-TAA) to induce immune-reaction toward cancer cells. Inducing ICD stands out as a promising approach in cancer immunotherapy, capable of directly eliminating cancer cells and of eliciting enduring antitumor immune responses. Conventional tumor therapies like radiation therapy, photodynamic therapy, and chemotherapy can also induce ICD which could amplify their activities. The development of effective ICD inducers like nano-systems is crucial for ensuring safe and efficacious immunotherapy. Nanoparticles hold considerable promise in cancer therapy, offering enhanced therapeutic outcomes and mitigated side effects. They could be the capacity to adjust systemic biodistribution, augment the accumulation of therapeutic agents at the intended site and protect active agents from the complexity of human biofluid. This review aims to outline the role of nanoparticles in triggering ICD for cancer immunotherapy that potentially pave the way for cancer treatment.

Exploring therapeutic potential: Targeting TRPM7 in neurodegenerative diseases

The ions Ca2+ and Mg2+, which are both present in the body, have been demonstrated to be crucial in the control of a variety of neuronal processes. Transient melastatin-7 (TRPM7) channel plays an important role in controlling Ca2+ and Mg2+ homeostasis, which is crucial for biological processes. The review will also examine how changes in TRPM7 function or expression can lead to neurodegeneration.Even though eight different TRPM channels have been found so far, the channel properties, activation mechanisms, and physiological responses exhibited by these channels can vary greatly from one another. Only TRPM6 and TRPM7 out of the eight TRPM channels were found to have a high permeability to both Ca2+ and Mg2+. In contrast to TRPM6 channels, which are not highly expressed in neuronal cells, TRPM7 channels are widely distributed throughout the nervous system, so they will be the sole focus of this article. It is possible that, in the future, for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorder new therapeutic drug targets will be developed as a direct result of research into the specific roles played by TRPM7 channels in several different neurodegenerative conditions as well as the factors that are responsible for TRPM7 channel regulation.

Frontiers of Neurodegenerative Disease Treatment: Targeting Immune Cells in Brain Border Regions

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) demonstrate a complex interaction with the immune system, challenging the traditional view of the brain as an "immune-privileged" organ. Microglia were once considered the sole guardians of the brain's immune response. However, recent research has revealed the critical role of peripheral immune cells located in key brain regions like the meninges, choroid plexus, and perivascular spaces. These previously overlooked cells are now recognized as contributors to the development and progression of NDs. This newfound understanding opens doors for pioneering therapeutic strategies. By targeting these peripheral immune cells, we may be able to modulate the brain's immune environment, offering an alternative approach to treat NDs and circumvent the challenges posed by the blood-brain barrier. This comprehensive review will scrutinize the latest findings on the complex interactions between these peripheral immune cells and NDs. It will also critically assess the prospects of targeting these cells as a ground-breaking therapeutic avenue for these debilitating disorders.

Synergistic effects of plasma-activated medium in combination with Baicalin against neuronal damage

Neurodegenerative disorders are chronic conditions that progressively damage and destroy parts of the nervous system, and are currently considered permanent and incurable. Alternative strategies capable of effectively healing neuronal damage have been actively pursued. Here, we report the neuroprotective effects of baicalin (BA) combined with plasma-activated medium (PAM) against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. Through in vitro assays, the cell viability, inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative stress were evaluated. The co-application of BA and PAM significantly enhanced cell viability, reduced pro-inflammatory markers (TNF-α and NF-κB), decreased apoptotic proteins (Bax and Caspase-3) and boosted antioxidative defenses (increased SOD activity and lowered ROS levels). This study confirms the potential of combining BA with PAM as an effective therapeutic strategy for mitigating the effects of excitotoxicity. PAM is a promising adjunct and potential drug delivery method in neuroprotective therapy, providing a new avenue for developing treatments for diseases characterized by neuronal damage.

Harnessing nanomedicine for modulating microglial states in the central nervous system disorders: Challenges and opportunities

Microglia are essential for maintaining homeostasis and responding to pathological events in the central nervous system (CNS). Their dynamic and multidimensional states in different environments are pivotal factors in various CNS disorders. However, therapeutic modulation of microglial states is challenging due to the intricate balance these cells maintain in the CNS environment and the blood-brain barrier's restriction of drug delivery. Nanomedicine presents a promising avenue for addressing these challenges, offering a method for the targeted and efficient modulation of microglial states. This review covers the challenges faced in microglial therapeutic modulation and potential use of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. We provide an in-depth examination of nanoparticle applications for modulating microglial states in a range of CNS disorders, encompassing neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, infections, traumatic injuries, stroke, tumors, chronic pain, and psychiatric conditions. This review highlights the recent advancements and future prospects in nanomedicine for microglial modulation, paving the way for future research and clinical applications of therapeutic interventions in CNS disorders.

Harnessing the power of natural alkaloids: the emergent role in epilepsy therapy

The quest for effective epilepsy treatments has spotlighted natural alkaloids due to their broad neuropharmacological effects. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the antiseizure properties of various natural compounds, with an emphasis on their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic benefits. Our findings reveal that bioactive substances such as indole, quinoline, terpenoid, and pyridine alkaloids confer medicinal benefits by modulating synaptic interactions, restoring neuronal balance, and mitigating neuroinflammation-key factors in managing epileptic seizures. Notably, these compounds enhance GABAergic neurotransmission, diminish excitatory glutamatergic activities, particularly at NMDA receptors, and suppress proinflammatory pathways. A significant focus is placed on the strategic use of nanoparticle delivery systems to improve the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of these alkaloids, which helps overcome the challenges associated with crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The review concludes with a prospective outlook on integrating these bioactive substances into epilepsy treatment regimes, advocating for extensive research to confirm their efficacy and safety. Advancing the bioavailability of alkaloids and rigorously assessing their toxicological profiles are essential to fully leverage the therapeutic potential of these compounds in clinical settings.

Tau- and α-synuclein-targeted gold nanoparticles: applications, opportunities, and future outlooks in the diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative diseases

The use of nanomaterials in medicine offers multiple opportunities to address neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. These diseases are a significant burden for society and the health system, affecting millions of people worldwide without sensitive and selective diagnostic methodologies or effective treatments to stop their progression. In this sense, the use of gold nanoparticles is a promising tool due to their unique properties at the nanometric level. They can be functionalized with specific molecules to selectively target pathological proteins such as Tau and α-synuclein for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, respectively. Additionally, these proteins are used as diagnostic biomarkers, wherein gold nanoparticles play a key role in enhancing their signal, even at the low concentrations present in biological samples such as blood or cerebrospinal fluid, thus enabling an early and accurate diagnosis. On the other hand, gold nanoparticles act as drug delivery platforms, bringing therapeutic agents directly into the brain, improving treatment efficiency and precision, and reducing side effects in healthy tissues. However, despite the exciting potential of gold nanoparticles, it is crucial to address the challenges and issues associated with their use in the medical field before they can be widely applied in clinical settings. It is critical to ensure the safety and biocompatibility of these nanomaterials in the context of the central nervous system. Therefore, rigorous preclinical and clinical studies are needed to assess the efficacy and feasibility of these strategies in patients. Since there is scarce and sometimes contradictory literature about their use in this context, the main aim of this review is to discuss and analyze the current state-of-the-art of gold nanoparticles in relation to delivery, diagnosis, and therapy for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, as well as recent research about their use in preclinical, clinical, and emerging research areas.

Blood-Brain Barrier-Targeting Nanoparticles: Biomaterial Properties and Biomedical Applications in Translational Neuroscience

Overcoming the blood-brain barrier (BBB) remains a significant hurdle in effective drug delivery to the brain. While the BBB serves as a crucial protective barrier, it poses challenges in delivering therapeutic agents to their intended targets within the brain parenchyma. To enhance drug delivery for the treatment of neurological diseases, several delivery technologies to circumvent the BBB have been developed in the last few years. Among them, nanoparticles (NPs) are one of the most versatile and promising tools. Here, we summarize the characteristics of NPs that facilitate BBB penetration, including their size, shape, chemical composition, surface charge, and importantly, their conjugation with various biological or synthetic molecules such as glucose, transferrin, insulin, polyethylene glycol, peptides, and aptamers. Additionally, we discuss the coating of NPs with surfactants. A comprehensive overview of the common in vitro and in vivo models of the BBB for NP penetration studies is also provided. The discussion extends to discussing BBB impairment under pathological conditions and leveraging BBB alterations under pathological conditions to enhance drug delivery. Emphasizing the need for future studies to uncover the inherent therapeutic properties of NPs, the review advocates for their role beyond delivery systems and calls for efforts translating NPs to the clinic as therapeutics. Overall, NPs stand out as a highly promising therapeutic strategy for precise BBB targeting and drug delivery in neurological disorders.

Glucose-modified BSA/procyanidin C1 NPs penetrate the blood-brain barrier and alleviate neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease models

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease with high prevalence, long duration and poor prognosis. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a physiologic barrier in the central nervous system, which hinders the entry of most drugs into the brain from the blood, thus affecting the efficacy of drugs for AD. Natural products are recognized as one of the promising and unique therapeutic approaches to treat AD. To improve the efficiency and therapeutic effect of the drug across the BBB, a natural polyphenolic compound, procyanidin C-1 (C1) was encapsulated in glucose-functionalized bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles to construct Glu-BSA/C1 NPs in our study. Glu-BSA/C1 NPs exhibited good stability, slow release, biocompatibility and antioxidant properties. In addition, Glu-BSA/C1 NPs penetrated the BBB, accumulated in the brain by targeting Glut1, and maintained the BBB integrity both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, Glu-BSA/C1 NPs alleviated memory impairment of 5 × FAD mice by reducing Aβ deposition and Tau phosphorylation and promoting neurogenesis. Mechanistically, Glu-BSA/C1 NPs significantly activated the PI3K/AKT pathway and inhibited the NLRP3/Caspase-1/IL-1β pathway thereby suppressing neuroinflammation. Taken together, Glu-BSA/C1 NPs could penetrate the BBB and mitigate neuroinflammation in AD, which provides a new therapeutic approach targeting AD.

Nanoparticle-Based Combinational Strategies for Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier and Blood-Tumor Barrier

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-tumor barrier (BTB) pose substantial challenges to efficacious drug delivery for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), a primary brain tumor with poor prognosis. Nanoparticle-based combinational strategies have emerged as promising modalities to overcome these barriers and enhance drug penetration into the brain parenchyma. This review discusses various nanoparticle-based combinatorial approaches that combine nanoparticles with cell-based drug delivery, viral drug delivery, focused ultrasound, magnetic field, and intranasal drug delivery to enhance drug permeability across the BBB and BTB. Cell-based drug delivery involves using engineered cells as carriers for nanoparticles, taking advantage of their intrinsic migratory and homing capabilities to facilitate the transport of therapeutic payloads across BBB and BTB. Viral drug delivery uses engineered viral vectors to deliver therapeutic genes or payloads to specific cells within the GBM microenvironment. Focused ultrasound, coupled with microbubbles or nanoparticles, can temporarily disrupt the BBB to increase drug permeability. Magnetic field-guided drug delivery exploits magnetic nanoparticles to facilitate targeted drug delivery under an external magnetic field. Intranasal drug delivery offers a minimally invasive avenue to bypass the BBB and deliver therapeutic agents directly to the brain via olfactory and trigeminal pathways. By combining these strategies, synergistic effects can enhance drug delivery efficiency, improve therapeutic efficacy, and reduce off-target effects. Future research should focus on optimizing nanoparticle design, exploring new combination strategies, and advancing preclinical and clinical investigations to promote the translation of nanoparticle-based combination therapies for GBM.

Role of lysosome in healing neurological disorders by nano-bioengineering

Lysosomes primarily recognized as center for cellular 'garbage-disposing-unit', which has recently emerged as a crucial regulator of cellular metabolism. This organelle is a well-known vital player in the pathology including neurodegenerative disorders. In pathological context, removal of intracellular damaged misfolded proteins, organelles and aggregates are ensured by 'Autophagy' pathway, which initially recognizes, engulfs and seals the toxic cargo at the cytosolic environment. Thereafter the cell completes the task of encapsulated cargo elimination upon delivery of them to the terminal compartment - lysosome, which contains acid hydrolases, that are capable of degrading the abnormal protein-lipid-repertoire. The merge between inseparable 'Autophagy' and 'Lysosomal' pathways evolved into 'Autophagy-Lysosome Pathway (ALP)', through which cell ultimately degrades and recycles bio-materials for metabolic needs. Dysregulation of any of the steps of the multi-step ALP can contribute to the development and progression of disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD). Therefore, targeting differential steps of ALP or directly lysosomes using nano-bioengineering approaches holds great promise for therapeutic interventions. This review aims to explore the role of distal autophagy pathway and proximal lysosomal function, as cellular degradative and metabolic hubs, in healing neurological disorders and highlights the contributions of nano-bioengineering in this field. Despite multiple challenges, this review underscores the immense potential of integrating autophagy-lysosomal biology with nano-bioengineering to revolutionize the field and provide novel therapeutic avenues for tackling neurological-neurodegenerative-disorders.

Designing and Formulation of Nanocarriers for "Alzheimer's and Parkinson's" Early Detection and Therapy

The potential of nanotechnology in advancing the diagnosis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is explored in this comprehensive literature review. The findings of these studies suggest that nanotechnology has the capacity to improve existing therapeutic approaches, create novel and safe compounds, and develop more precise imaging techniques and diagnostic methods for neurodegenerative diseases. With the emergence of the nanomedicine era, a new and innovative approach of diagnosing and treating these conditions has been introduced. Notably, the researchers' development of a nanocarrier drug delivery tool demonstrates immense potential compared to conventional therapy, as it maximizes therapeutic efficacy and minimizes undesirable as side effects.

Recent advances in nanomaterials for neural applications: opportunities and challenges

Nanomedicines are promising for delivering drugs to the central nervous system, though their precision is still being improved. Fortifying nanoparticles with vital molecules can interact with the blood-brain barrier, enabling access to brain tissue. This study summarizes recent advances in nanomedicine to treat neurological complications. The integration of nanotechnology into cell biology aids in the study of brain cells' interactions. Magnetic microhydrogels have exhibited superior neuron activation compared with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and hold promise for neuropsychiatric disorders. Nanomaterials have shown notable results, such as tackling neurodegenerative diseases by hindering harmful protein buildup and regulating cellular processes. However, further studies of the safety and effectiveness of nanoparticles in managing neurological diseases and disorders are still required.

Challenges and opportunities for improving the druggability of natural product: Why need drug delivery system?

Bioactive natural products (BNPs) are the marrow of medicinal plants, which are the secondary metabolites of organisms and have been the most famous drug discovery database. Bioactive natural products are famous for their enormous number and great safety in medical applications. However, BNPs are troubled by their poor druggability compared with synthesis drugs and are challenged as medicine (only a few BNPs are applied in clinical settings). In order to find a reasonable solution to improving the druggability of BNPs, this review summarizes their bioactive nature based on the enormous pharmacological research and tries to explain the reasons for the poor druggability of BNPs. And then focused on the boosting research on BNPs loaded drug delivery systems, this review further concludes the advantages of drug delivery systems on the druggability improvement of BNPs from the perspective of their bioactive nature, discusses why BNPs need drug delivery systems, and predicts the next direction.

Nanopharmacology as a new approach to treat neuroinflammatory disorders

Neuroinflammation, a complex process involving the activation of microglia, astrocytes, and other immune cells in the brain, plays a role in neurodegeneration and psychiatric disorders. Current therapeutic strategies for neuroinflammation are limited, necessitating the development of improved approaches. Nanopharmacology offers unprecedented opportunities to access and treat neuroinflammatory disorders at the brain level. Nanoscaffolds can target specific cells or tissues and protect drugs from degradation or elimination, making them ideal candidates for treating neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. Recent advancements in nanoparticle development have enabled the targeting of microglia, astrocytes, and other immune cells in the brain, reducing neuroinflammation and protecting neurons from injury. Nanoparticles targeting specific neurons have also been developed. Clinical trials are in progress to evaluate the safety and efficacy of nano drugs for treating neuroinflammatory, neurodegenerative, and psychiatric diseases. The successful development of these nanodrugs holds immense promise for treating these devastating and increasingly prevalent conditions. On the other hand, several limitations and unanswered questions remain. First, the long-term effects of nanoparticles on the brain need to be thoroughly investigated to ensure their safety. Second, optimizing the targeting and delivery of nanoparticles to specific brain regions remains a challenge. Understanding the complex interplay between nanoparticles and the brain's immune system is crucial for developing effective nanotherapies. Despite these limitations, nanopharmacology presents a transformative approach to treating neuroinflammatory disorders. Future research should address the aforementioned limitations and further elucidate the mechanisms of nanoparticle-mediated therapy. The successful development of safe and effective nanodrugs can revolutionize the treatment of neuroinflammatory disorders, alleviating the suffering of millions.