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Tonry C, Finn S, Armstrong J, Pennington SR. Clinical proteomics for prostate cancer: understanding prostate cancer pathology and protein biomarkers for improved disease management. Clin Proteomics 2020; 17:41. [PMID: 33292167 PMCID: PMC7678104 DOI: 10.1186/s12014-020-09305-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Following the introduction of routine Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) screening in the early 1990's, Prostate Cancer (PCa) is often detected at an early stage. There are also a growing number of treatment options available and so the associated mortality rate is generally low. However, PCa is an extremely complex and heterogenous disease and many patients suffer disease recurrence following initial therapy. Disease recurrence commonly results in metastasis and metastatic PCa has an average survival rate of just 3-5 years. A significant problem in the clinical management of PCa is being able to differentiate between patients who will respond to standard therapies and those who may benefit from more aggressive intervention at an earlier stage. It is also acknowledged that for many men the disease is not life threatenting. Hence, there is a growing desire to identify patients who can be spared the significant side effects associated with PCa treatment until such time (if ever) their disease progresses to the point where treatment is required. To these important clinical needs, current biomarkers and clinical methods for patient stratification and personlised treatment are insufficient. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the complexities of PCa pathology and disease management. In this context it is possible to review current biomarkers and proteomic technologies that will support development of biomarker-driven decision tools to meet current important clinical needs. With such an in-depth understanding of disease pathology, the development of novel clinical biomarkers can proceed in an efficient and effective manner, such that they have a better chance of improving patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Tonry
- UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Stephen Finn
- Department of Histopathology and Morbid Anatomy, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland
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2
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Riccardi C, Napolitano E, Platella C, Musumeci D, Melone MAB, Montesarchio D. Anti-VEGF DNA-based aptamers in cancer therapeutics and diagnostics. Med Res Rev 2020; 41:464-506. [PMID: 33038031 DOI: 10.1002/med.21737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family and its receptors play fundamental roles not only in physiological but also in pathological angiogenesis, characteristic of cancer progression. Aiming at finding putative treatments for several malignancies, various small molecules, antibodies, or protein-based drugs have been evaluated in vitro and in vivo as VEGF inhibitors, providing efficient agents approved for clinical use. Due to the high clinical importance of VEGF, also a great number of anti-VEGF nucleic acid-based aptamers-that is, oligonucleotides able to bind with high affinity and specificity a selected biological target-have been developed as promising agents in anticancer strategies. Notable research efforts have been made in optimization processes of the identified aptamers, searching for increased target affinity and/or bioactivity by exploring structural analogues of the lead compounds. This review is focused on recent studies devoted to the development of DNA-based aptamers designed to target VEGF. Their therapeutic potential as well as their significance in the construction of highly selective biosensors is here discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Riccardi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.,Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, 2nd Division of Neurology, Center for Rare Diseases and Inter-University Center for Research in Neurosciences, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Ettore Napolitano
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Chiara Platella
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Domenica Musumeci
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.,Institute of Biostructures and Bioimages, Naples, Italy
| | - Mariarosa A B Melone
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, 2nd Division of Neurology, Center for Rare Diseases and Inter-University Center for Research in Neurosciences, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy.,Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Daniela Montesarchio
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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3
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Şahin S, Caglayan MO, Üstündağ Z. Recent advances in aptamer-based sensors for breast cancer diagnosis: special cases for nanomaterial-based VEGF, HER2, and MUC1 aptasensors. Mikrochim Acta 2020; 187:549. [PMID: 32888061 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-020-04526-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is one of the most common and important diseases with a high mortality rate. Breast cancer is among the three most common types of cancer in women, and the mortality rate has reached 0.024% in some countries. For early-stage preclinical diagnosis of breast cancer, sensitive and reliable tools are needed. Today, there are many types of biomarkers that have been identified for cancer diagnosis. A wide variety of detection strategies have also been developed for the detection of these biomarkers from serum or other body fluids at physiological concentrations. Aptamers are single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotides and promising in the production of more sensitive and reliable biosensor platforms in combination with a wide range of nanomaterials. Conformational changes triggered by the target analyte have been successfully applied in fluorometric, colorimetric, plasmonic, and electrochemical-based detection strategies. This review article presents aptasensor approaches used in the detection of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and mucin-1 glycoprotein (MUC1) biomarkers, which are frequently studied in the diagnosis of breast cancer. The focus of this review article is on developments of the last decade for detecting these biomarkers using various sensitivity enhancement techniques and nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samet Şahin
- Department of Bioengineering, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, 11230, Bilecik, Turkey.
| | | | - Zafer Üstündağ
- Department of Chemistry, Kütahya Dumlupınar University, 43100, Kütahya, Turkey
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4
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Ali M, Sajid M, Khalid MAU, Kim SW, Lim JH, Huh D, Choi KH. A fluorescent lateral flow biosensor for the quantitative detection of Vaspin using upconverting nanoparticles. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 226:117610. [PMID: 31606675 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2019.117610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Vaspin is a protein present in human serum that can cause type-2 diabetes, obesity, and other cardiovascular diseases. We report fluorescent upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs)-based lateral flow biosensor for ultrasensitive detection of Vaspin. A pair (primary and secondary) of cognate aptamers was used that has duo binding with Vaspin. UCNPs with a diameter of around 100 nm were used as a tag to label a detection probe (secondary aptamer). A primary aptamer (capture probe) was immobilized on the test zone. Sandwich type hybridization reactions among the conjugate probe, target Vaspin, and primary aptamer were performed on the lateral flow biosensor. In the presence of target Vaspin, UCNPs were captured on the test zone of the biosensor and the fluorescent intensity of the captured UCNPs was measured through a colorimetric app under NIR. Fluorescence intensity indicates the quantity of Vaspin present in the sample. A range of Vaspin concentration across 0.1-55 ng ml-1 with a Limit of detection (LOD) 39 pg ml-1 was tested through this UCNPs based LFSA with high sensitivity, reproducibility and repeatability, whereas it's actual range in human blood is from 0.1 to 7 ng ml-1. Therefore, this research provides a well-suited lateral flow strip with an ultrasensitive and low-cost approach for the early diagnosis of type-2 diabetes and this could be applied to any targets with a duo of aptamers generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhsin Ali
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea
| | - Memoon Sajid
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea; GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology Topi, Swabi, KP, Pakistan.
| | | | - Soo Wan Kim
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea.
| | - Jong Hwan Lim
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea.
| | - Dongeun Huh
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Kyung Hyun Choi
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea.
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5
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Xu M, Yadavalli VK. Flexible Biosensors for the Impedimetric Detection of Protein Targets Using Silk-Conductive Polymer Biocomposites. ACS Sens 2019; 4:1040-1047. [PMID: 30957494 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
To expand the applications of flexible biosensors in point-of-care healthcare applications beyond monitoring of biophysical parameters, it is important to devise strategies for the detection of various proteins and biomarkers. Here, we demonstrate a flexible, fully organic, biodegradable, label-free impedimetric biosensor for the critical biomarker, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This biosensor was constructed by photolithographically patterning a conducting ink consisting of a photoreactive silk sericin coupled with a conducting polymer. These functional electrodes are printed on flexible fibroin substrates that are controllably thick and can be free-standing, or conform to soft surfaces. Detection was accomplished via the antibody to VEGF which was immobilized within the conducting matrix. The results indicated that the developed flexible biosensor was highly sensitive and selective to the target protein, even in challenging biofluids such as human serum. The biosensors themselves are biocompatible and degradable. Through this work, the developed flexible biosensor based on a simple and label-free strategy can find practical applications in the monitoring of wound healing or early disease diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Xu
- Department of Chemical and Life Science Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, 601 W. Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Vamsi K. Yadavalli
- Department of Chemical and Life Science Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, 601 W. Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
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6
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Bayat P, Nosrati R, Alibolandi M, Rafatpanah H, Abnous K, Khedri M, Ramezani M. SELEX methods on the road to protein targeting with nucleic acid aptamers. Biochimie 2018; 154:132-155. [PMID: 30193856 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Systematic evolution of ligand by exponential enrichment (SELEX) is an efficient method used to isolate high-affinity single stranded oligonucleotides from a large random sequence pool. These SELEX-derived oligonucleotides named aptamer, can be selected against a broad spectrum of target molecules including proteins, cells, microorganisms and chemical compounds. Like antibodies, aptamers have a great potential in interacting with and binding to their targets through structural recognition and are therefore called "chemical antibodies". However, aptamers offer advantages over antibodies including smaller size, better tissue penetration, higher thermal stability, lower immunogenicity, easier production, lower cost of synthesis and facilitated conjugation or modification with different functional moieties. Thus, aptamers represent an attractive substitution for protein antibodies in the fields of biomarker discovery, diagnosis, imaging and targeted therapy. Enormous interest in aptamer technology triggered the development of SELEX that has underwent numerous modifications since its introduction in 1990. This review will discuss the recent advances in SELEX methods and their advantages and limitations. Aptamer applications are also briefly outlined in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payam Bayat
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Rahim Nosrati
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mona Alibolandi
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Houshang Rafatpanah
- Inflammation and Inflammatory Diseases Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Khalil Abnous
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mostafa Khedri
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ramezani
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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7
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Dehghani S, Nosrati R, Yousefi M, Nezami A, Soltani F, Taghdisi SM, Abnous K, Alibolandi M, Ramezani M. Aptamer-based biosensors and nanosensors for the detection of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): A review. Biosens Bioelectron 2018; 110:23-37. [PMID: 29579646 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key regulator of vascular formation and a predominant protein biomarker in cancer angiogenesis. Owing to its crucial roles in the cancer metastasis, VEGF detection and quantification is of great importance in clinical diagnostics. Today, there exist a wide variety of detection strategies for identifying many types of disease biomarkers, especially for VEGF. As artificial single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotides with catalytic and receptor properties, aptamers have drawn lots of attention to be applied in biosensing platforms due to their target-induced conformational changes as well as high stability and target versatility. So far, various sensitivity-enhancement techniques in combination with a broad range of smart nanomaterials have integrated into the design of novel aptasensors to improve detection limit and sensitivity of analyte detection. This review article provides a brief classification and description of the research progresses of aptamer-based biosensors and nanobiosensors for the detection and quantitative determination of VEGF based on optical and electrochemical platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadegh Dehghani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Rahim Nosrati
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Meysam Yousefi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Alireza Nezami
- Department of Pharmacodynamy and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Soltani
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed Mohammad Taghdisi
- Targeted Drug Delivery Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Khalil Abnous
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mona Alibolandi
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ramezani
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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8
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Lietard J, Abou Assi H, Gómez-Pinto I, González C, Somoza MM, Damha MJ. Mapping the affinity landscape of Thrombin-binding aptamers on 2΄F-ANA/DNA chimeric G-Quadruplex microarrays. Nucleic Acids Res 2017; 45:1619-1632. [PMID: 28100695 PMCID: PMC5389548 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkw1357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In situ fabricated nucleic acids microarrays are versatile and very high-throughput platforms for aptamer optimization and discovery, but the chemical space that can be probed against a given target has largely been confined to DNA, while RNA and non-natural nucleic acid microarrays are still an essentially uncharted territory. 2΄-Fluoroarabinonucleic acid (2΄F-ANA) is a prime candidate for such use in microarrays. Indeed, 2΄F-ANA chemistry is readily amenable to photolithographic microarray synthesis and its potential in high affinity aptamers has been recently discovered. We thus synthesized the first microarrays containing 2΄F-ANA and 2΄F-ANA/DNA chimeric sequences to fully map the binding affinity landscape of the TBA1 thrombin-binding G-quadruplex aptamer containing all 32 768 possible DNA-to-2΄F-ANA mutations. The resulting microarray was screened against thrombin to identify a series of promising 2΄F-ANA-modified aptamer candidates with Kds significantly lower than that of the unmodified control and which were found to adopt highly stable, antiparallel-folded G-quadruplex structures. The solution structure of the TBA1 aptamer modified with 2΄F-ANA at position T3 shows that fluorine substitution preorganizes the dinucleotide loop into the proper conformation for interaction with thrombin. Overall, our work strengthens the potential of 2΄F-ANA in aptamer research and further expands non-genomic applications of nucleic acids microarrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jory Lietard
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14 (UZA II), 1090 Vienna, Austria.,Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Rue Sherbrooke O, Montréal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Hala Abou Assi
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Rue Sherbrooke O, Montréal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
| | | | - Carlos González
- Instituto de Química Física 'Rocasolano', CSIC, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Mark M Somoza
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14 (UZA II), 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Masad J Damha
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Rue Sherbrooke O, Montréal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
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Shan S, He Z, Mao S, Jie M, Yi L, Lin JM. Quantitative determination of VEGF165 in cell culture medium by aptamer sandwich based chemiluminescence assay. Talanta 2017; 171:197-203. [PMID: 28551129 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.04.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we have developed a sensitive and selective chemiluminescence (CL) assay for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF165) quantitative detection based on two specific VEGF165 binding aptamers (Apt). VEGF is a predominant biomarker in cancer angiogenesis, and sensitive detection method of VEGF are highly demanded for both academic study and clinical diagnosis of multiple cancers. In our experiment, VEGF165 was captured in a sandwich structure assembled by two binding aptamers, one capture aptamer was immobilized on streptavidin-coated magnetic beads (MBs) and another VEGF-binding aptamer was labeled by biotin for further phosphatase conjunction. After Apt-VEGF-Apt sandwich was formed on MBs surface, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was modified to the second aptamer to catalyze CL reaction. By applying 4-methoxy-4-(3-phosphatephenyl)-spiro-(1,2-dioxetane-3,2-adamantane) (AMPPD) as CL substrate, strong signal intensity was achieved. VEGF165 content as low as 1ng/mL was detected in standard spiked samples by our assay, and linear range of working curve was confirmed from 1 to 20ng/mL. Then our method was successfully applied for cell culture medium analysis and on-chip hypoxic HepG2-HUVEC co-culture model study with excellent accuracy equal to ELISA Kit. Our developed assay demonstrated an outstanding performance in VEGF165 quantification and may be further extended to clinical testing of important biomarkers as well as probing microchip cell culture model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siwen Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China; Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ziyi He
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Sifeng Mao
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Mingsha Jie
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China; Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Linglu Yi
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China; Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jin-Ming Lin
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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10
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Dai Z, Gao Q, Cheung MC, Leung HM, Lau TCK, Sleiman HF, Lai KWC, Lo PK. A highly versatile platform based on geometrically well-defined 3D DNA nanostructures for selective recognition and positioning of multiplex targets. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:18291-18295. [PMID: 27775745 DOI: 10.1039/c6nr05411k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We develop a versatile recognition system based on 3D triangular-shaped DNA nanotubes by integrating three different aptamer sequences along the three edges. This would allow multiple binding activities to be combined into a single system. The versatility of this nanotube platform can also provide a framework for spatial orientation and positioning of different aptamer-binding ligands in a 'pea-pod' architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziwen Dai
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, Chinaand Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
| | - Qi Gao
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Man Ching Cheung
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, Chinaand Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
| | - Hoi Man Leung
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, Chinaand Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
| | - Terrence Chi Kong Lau
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hanadi F Sleiman
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H3A 2K6, Canada
| | - King Wai Chiu Lai
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Pik Kwan Lo
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong SAR, Chinaand Key Laboratory of Biochip Technology, Biotech and Health Centre, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
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11
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Tonry CL, Leacy E, Raso C, Finn SP, Armstrong J, Pennington SR. The Role of Proteomics in Biomarker Development for Improved Patient Diagnosis and Clinical Decision Making in Prostate Cancer. Diagnostics (Basel) 2016; 6:E27. [PMID: 27438858 PMCID: PMC5039561 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics6030027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate Cancer (PCa) is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in men worldwide. Although increased expression of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an effective indicator for the recurrence of PCa, its intended use as a screening marker for PCa is of considerable controversy. Recent research efforts in the field of PCa biomarkers have focused on the identification of tissue and fluid-based biomarkers that would be better able to stratify those individuals diagnosed with PCa who (i) might best receive no treatment (active surveillance of the disease); (ii) would benefit from existing treatments; or (iii) those who are likely to succumb to disease recurrence and/or have aggressive disease. The growing demand for better prostate cancer biomarkers has coincided with the development of improved discovery and evaluation technologies for multiplexed measurement of proteins in bio-fluids and tissues. This review aims to (i) provide an overview of these technologies as well as describe some of the candidate PCa protein biomarkers that have been discovered using them; (ii) address some of the general limitations in the clinical evaluation and validation of protein biomarkers; and (iii) make recommendations for strategies that could be adopted to improve the successful development of protein biomarkers to deliver improvements in personalized PCa patient decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L Tonry
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Emma Leacy
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Cinzia Raso
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Stephen P Finn
- School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | | | - Stephen R Pennington
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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12
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Aptamer-based 'point-of-care testing'. Biotechnol Adv 2016; 34:198-208. [PMID: 26876017 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that can be artificially generated by a method called Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). The generated aptamers have been assessed for high-performance sensing applications due to their appealing characteristics. With either aptamers alone or complementing with antibodies, several high sensitive and portable sensors have been demonstrated for use in 'point-of-care testing'. Due to their high suitability and flexibility, aptamers are conjugated with nanostructures and utilized in field applications. Moreover, aptamers are more amenable to chemical modifications, making them capable of utilization with most developed sensors. In this overview, we discuss novel, portable, and aptamer-based sensing strategies that are suitable for 'point-of-care testing'.
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13
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Wang Y, Li H, Xu D. Aptamers-based sandwich assay for silver-enhanced fluorescence multiplex detection. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 905:149-55. [PMID: 26755149 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In this work, aptamers-modified silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were prepared as capture substrate, and fluorescent dyes-modified aptamers were synthesized as detection probes. The sandwich assay was based on dual aptamers, which was aimed to accomplish the highly sensitive detection of single protein and multiplex detection of proteins on one-spot. We found that aptamers-modified AgNPs based microarray was much superior to the aptamer based microarray in fluorescence detection of proteins. The result shows that the detection limit of the sandwich assay using AgNPs probes for thrombin or platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) is 80 or 8 times lower than that of aptamers used directly. For multiplex detection of proteins, the detection limit was 625 pM for PDGF-BB and 21 pM for thrombin respectively. The sandwich assay based on dual aptamers and AgNPs was sensitive and specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, China; School of Environmental Science, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, China.
| | - Hui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, China.
| | - Danke Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, China.
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14
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Jauset Rubio M, Svobodová M, Mairal T, Schubert T, Künne S, Mayer G, O'Sullivan CK. β-Conglutin dual aptamers binding distinct aptatopes. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 408:875-84. [PMID: 26586159 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9179-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Revised: 10/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
An aptamer was previously selected against the anaphylactic allergen β-conglutin (β-CBA I), which was subsequently truncated to an 11-mer and the affinity improved by two orders of magnitude. The work reported here details the selection and characterisation of a second aptamer (β-CBA II) selected against a second aptatope on the β-conglutin target. The affinity of this second aptamer was similar to that of the 11-mer, and its affinity was confirmed by three different techniques at three independent laboratories. This β-CBA II aptamer in combination with the previously selected β-CBA I was then exploited to a dual-aptamer approach. The specific and simultaneous binding of the dual aptamer (β-CBA I and β-CBA II) to different sites of β-conglutin was confirmed using both microscale thermophoresis and surface plasmon resonance where β-CBA II serves as the primary capturing aptamer and β-CBA I or the truncated β-CBA I (11-mer) as the secondary signalling aptamer, which can be further exploited in enzyme-linked aptamer assays and aptasensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Jauset Rubio
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Markéta Svobodová
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Teresa Mairal
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Thomas Schubert
- 2bind GmbH, Josef Engert Strasse 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Künne
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Bonn, Gerhard-Domagk-Str. 1, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Günter Mayer
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Bonn, Gerhard-Domagk-Str. 1, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ciara K O'Sullivan
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 43007, Tarragona, Spain.
- Institució Catalana de Recerca I Estudis Avancats, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Spain.
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15
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Yan M, Bai W, Zhu C, Huang Y, Yan J, Chen A. Design of nuclease-based target recycling signal amplification in aptasensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 77:613-23. [PMID: 26485175 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Revised: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Compared with conventional antibody-based immunoassay methods, aptasensors based on nucleic acid aptamer have made at least two significant breakthroughs. One is that aptamers are more easily used for developing various simple and rapid homogeneous detection methods by "sample in signal out" without multi-step washing. The other is that aptamers are more easily employed for developing highly sensitive detection methods by using various nucleic acid-based signal amplification approaches. As many substances playing regulatory roles in physiology or pathology exist at an extremely low concentration and many chemical contaminants occur in trace amounts in food or environment, aptasensors for signal amplification contribute greatly to detection of such targets. Among the signal amplification approaches in highly sensitive aptasensors, the nuclease-based target recycling signal amplification has recently become a research focus because it shows easy design, simple operation, and rapid reaction and can be easily developed for homogenous assay. In this review, we summarized recent advances in the development of various nuclease-based target recycling signal amplification with the aim to provide a general guide for the design of aptamer-based ultrasensitive biosensing assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Yan
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Wenhui Bai
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Chao Zhu
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yafei Huang
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China; College of Food Science and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Jiao Yan
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China; College of Food Science and Technology, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Ailiang Chen
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China.
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16
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Lin X, Chen Q, Liu W, Zhang J, Wang S, Lin Z, Lin JM. Oxygen-induced cell migration and on-line monitoring biomarkers modulation of cervical cancers on a microfluidic system. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9643. [PMID: 25905434 PMCID: PMC5386116 DOI: 10.1038/srep09643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we report an integrated microfluidic device for cell co-culture under different concentrations of oxygen, in which the secreted protein VEGF165 was on-line qualitatively and semi-quantitatively analyzed by functional nucleic acid, hemin, ABTS and peroxide system. This microfluidic platform allowed investigation of various oxygen and distances effect on cell-to-cell communication. Besides, the microfluidic device was used for real-time analysis of VEGF165 protein by aptamer-functionalized microchannels. Under 5% O2 condition, we found that the migration of CaSki cells was faster than the migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. However, the migration of CaSki cells was slower than the migration of HUVECs under 15% O2 condition. Moreover, the shorter intercellular distances, the quicker cells migration. Furthermore, HIF-1α and VEGF165 genes, ROS were analyzed, and the results would provide new perspectives for the diagnosis and medical treatment of cervical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuexia Lin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- School of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Qiushui Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wu Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shiqi Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhixiong Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, China
| | - Jin-Ming Lin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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17
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Chen A, Yang S. Replacing antibodies with aptamers in lateral flow immunoassay. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 71:230-242. [PMID: 25912679 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Aptamers have been identified against various targets as a type of chemical or nucleic acid ligand by systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) with high sensitivity and specificity. Aptamers show remarkable advantages over antibodies due to the nucleic acid nature and target-induced structure-switching properties and are widely used to design various fluorescent, electrochemical, or colorimetric biosensors. However, the practical applications of aptamer-based sensing and diagnostics are still lagging behind those of antibody-based tests. Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) represents a well established and appropriate technology among rapid assays because of its low cost and user-friendliness. The antibody-based platform is utilized to detect numerous targets, but it is always hampered by the antibody preparation time, antibody stability, and effect of modification on the antibody. Seeking alternatives to antibodies is an area of active research and is of tremendous importance. Aptamers are receiving increasing attention in lateral flow applications because of a number of important potential performance advantages. We speculate that aptamer-based LFIA may be one of the first platforms for commercial use of aptamer-based diagnosis. This review first gives an introduction to aptamer including the selection process SELEX with its focus on aptamer advantages over antibodies, and then depicts LFIA with its focus on aptamer opportunities in LFIA over antibodies. Furthermore, we summarize the recent advances in the development of aptamer-based lateral flow biosensing assays with the aim to provide a general guide for the design of aptamer-based lateral flow biosensing assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailiang Chen
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Shuming Yang
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China; Key Laboratory of Agri-food Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China
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18
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Aptamer Microarrays—Current Status and Future Prospects. MICROARRAYS 2015; 4:115-32. [PMID: 27600216 PMCID: PMC4996391 DOI: 10.3390/microarrays4020115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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19
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Darmostuk M, Rimpelova S, Gbelcova H, Ruml T. Current approaches in SELEX: An update to aptamer selection technology. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:1141-61. [PMID: 25708387 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) is a well-established and efficient technology for the generation of oligonucleotides with a high target affinity. These SELEX-derived single stranded DNA and RNA molecules, called aptamers, were selected against various targets, such as proteins, cells, microorganisms, chemical compounds etc. They have a great potential in the use as novel antibodies, in cancer theragnostics and in biomedical research. Vast interest in aptamers stimulated continuous development of SELEX, which underwent numerous modifications since its first application in 1990. Novel modifications made the selection process more efficient, cost-effective and significantly less time-consuming. This article brings a comprehensive and up-to-date review of recent advances in SELEX methods and pinpoints advantages, main obstacles and limitations. The post-SELEX strategies and examples of application are also briefly outlined in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariia Darmostuk
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, Prague 6 166 28, Czech Republic.
| | - Silvie Rimpelova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, Prague 6 166 28, Czech Republic.
| | - Helena Gbelcova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, Prague 6 166 28, Czech Republic; Institute of Medical Biology, Genetics and Clinical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinkova 4, Bratislava 811 08, Slovak Republic.
| | - Tomas Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, Prague 6 166 28, Czech Republic.
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Yu P, Zhou J, Wu L, Xiong E, Zhang X, Chen J. A ratiometric electrochemical aptasensor for sensitive detection of protein based on aptamer–target–aptamer sandwich structure. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2014.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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21
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Toh SY, Citartan M, Gopinath SCB, Tang TH. Aptamers as a replacement for antibodies in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 64:392-403. [PMID: 25278480 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The application of antibodies in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is the basis of this diagnostic technique which is designed to detect a potpourri of complex target molecules such as cell surface antigens, allergens, and food contaminants. However, development of the systematic evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX) method, which can generate a nucleic acid-based probe (aptamer) that possess numerous advantages compared to antibodies, offers the possibility of using aptamers as an alternative molecular recognition element in ELISA. Compared to antibodies, aptamers are smaller in size, can be easily modified, are cheaper to produce, and can be generated against a wide array of target molecules. The application of aptamers in ELISA gives rise to an ELISA-derived assay called enzyme-linked apta-sorbent assay (ELASA). As with the ELISA method, ELASA can be used in several different configurations, including direct, indirect, and sandwich assays. This review provides an overview of the strategies involved in aptamer-based ELASA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saw Yi Toh
- Advanced Medical & Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Marimuthu Citartan
- Advanced Medical & Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Subash C B Gopinath
- Advanced Medical & Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia; Department of Oral Biology & Biomedical Sciences and OCRCC, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Thean-Hock Tang
- Advanced Medical & Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia.
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