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Hassan Akhtar M, Azhar Hayat Nawaz M, Abbas M, Liu N, Han W, Lv Y, Yu C. Advances in pH Sensing: From Traditional Approaches to Next-Generation Sensors in Biological Contexts. CHEM REC 2024; 24:e202300369. [PMID: 38953343 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202300369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
pH has been considered one of the paramount factors in bodily functions because most cellular tasks exclusively rely on precise pH values. In this context, the current techniques for pH sensing provide us with the futuristic insight to further design therapeutic and diagnostic tools. Thus, pH-sensing (electrochemically and optically) is rapidly evolving toward exciting new applications and expanding researchers' interests in many chemical contexts, especially in biomedical applications. The adaptation of cutting-edge technology is subsequently producing the modest form of these biosensors as wearable devices, which are providing us the opportunity to target the real-time collection of vital parameters, including pH for improved healthcare systems. The motif of this review is to provide insight into trending tech-based systems employed in real-time or in-vivo pH-responsive monitoring. Herein, we briefly go through the pH regulation in the human body to help the beginners and scientific community with quick background knowledge, recent advances in the field, and pH detection in real-time biological applications. In the end, we summarize our review by providing an outlook; challenges that need to be addressed, and prospective integration of various pH in vivo platforms with modern electronics that can open new avenues of cutting-edge techniques for disease diagnostics and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmood Hassan Akhtar
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
| | - Muhammad Azhar Hayat Nawaz
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre in Biomedical Materials (IRCBM) COMSATS, University Islamabad, 54000, Lahore, Campus, Pakistan
| | - Manzar Abbas
- Department of Chemistry, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, UAE
- Functional Biomaterials Group, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Ning Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Wenzhao Han
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Yan Lv
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Cong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
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2
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Poorahong S, Oin W, Buapoon S, Nijpanich S, Harding DJ, Siaj M. Construction of an electrochemical pH sensor using one-pot synthesis of a molybdenum diselenide/nitrogen doped graphene oxide screen-printed electrode. RSC Adv 2024; 14:14616-14623. [PMID: 38708120 PMCID: PMC11066617 DOI: 10.1039/d4ra01708k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, a one-pot synthesis of a molybdenum diselenide/nitrogen-doped graphene oxide (MoSe2/NGO) composite was demonstrated and used for the fabrication of an electrochemical pH sensor. The MoSe2/NGO composite was characterized using powder X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. The electrochemical behavior at different pH values was determined by recording the open-circuit potential. When applied for pH detection, the MoSe2/NGO modified screen-printed electrode (SPE) showed good linearity with a sensitivity of 61.3 mV pH-1 over a wide pH range of 2-14. In addition, the pH sensor exhibited a remarkably stable response, high reproducibility, and selectivity. The sensor was used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of real food and beverage samples. The results for these samples showed a relative error of less than 10% compared with the results obtained with the commercial pH meter. The portable sensor produced by screen printing electrodes paves the way for the development of simple, cost-effective, real-time, and robust pH sensors for the pH analysis of various sample matrices for clinical diagnostics, biosensing, and cost-effective applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujittra Poorahong
- Functional Materials and Nanotechnology Center of Excellence, Walailak University Thasala Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160 Thailand
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Walailak University Thasala Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160 Thailand
| | - Wipawee Oin
- Functional Materials and Nanotechnology Center of Excellence, Walailak University Thasala Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160 Thailand
| | - Saowaluk Buapoon
- Functional Materials and Nanotechnology Center of Excellence, Walailak University Thasala Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160 Thailand
| | - Supinya Nijpanich
- Synchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization) Nakhon Ratchasima 30000 Thailand
| | - David J Harding
- Functional Materials and Nanotechnology Center of Excellence, Walailak University Thasala Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160 Thailand
- School of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology Nakhon Ratchasima 30000 Thailand
| | - Mohamed Siaj
- Department of Chemistry, Université du Québec à Montréal Montréal Québec H3C 3P8 Canada
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3
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Yu Q, Wu D, Min H, Ma Y, Liu Y. Research on electrochemical behaviour of reference electrodes for corrosion test under high hydrostatic pressure for simulating deep-sea. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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4
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Angizi S, Huang X, Hong L, Akbar MA, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Defect Density-Dependent pH Response of Graphene Derivatives: Towards the Development of pH-Sensitive Graphene Oxide Devices. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:1801. [PMID: 35683657 PMCID: PMC9181870 DOI: 10.3390/nano12111801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrate that a highly pH-sensitive substrate could be fabricated by controlling the type and defect density of graphene derivatives. Nanomaterials from single-layer graphene resembling a defect-free structure to few-layer graphene and graphene oxide with high defect density were used to demonstrate the pH-sensing mechanisms of graphene. We show the presence of three competing mechanisms of pH sensitivity, including the availability of functional groups, the electrochemical double layer, and the ion trapping that determines the overall pH response. The graphene surface was selectively functionalized with hydroxyl, amine, and carboxyl groups to understand the role and density of the graphene pH-sensitive functional groups. Later, we establish the development of highly pH-sensitive graphene oxide by controlling its defect density. This research opens a new avenue for integrating micro-nano-sized pH sensors based on graphene derivatives into next-generation sensing platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shayan Angizi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Xianxuan Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Lea Hong
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Md Ali Akbar
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - P. Ravi Selvaganapathy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada;
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
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5
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Lu X, Zhang M, Wang L, Liu G. Liquid Metal Fiber Mat as a Highly Stable Solid-State Junction for Inkjet-Printed Flexible Reference Electrodes. Anal Chem 2022; 94:6728-6735. [PMID: 35483011 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c05611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An all-solid liquid-metal-fiber-mat-based membrane flexible reference electrode (LMFM-FRE) was developed by combining liquid metal eutectic gallium indium (EGaIn) and poly(styrene-block-butadiene-block-styrene) (SBS) as a liquid junction layer. Ag ink was printed and chlorinated by electroplating to form the AgCl layer. Then, agarose containing KCl was coated as the electrolyte layer, and LMFM was added as the liquid junction layer. The liquid junction layer can increase the hydrophobicity of the electrode surface, limit the loss of internal Cl-, and significantly improve the stability of the electrode. The potential fluctuation of LMFM-FRE does not exceed 1 mV within 1 h, and it is still the same after 1 month. In addition, its potential changes in ion species and concentration, pH value, and ambient light are small, and its cyclic voltammetry characteristics are consistent with the standard reference electrode. Even in the case of temperature change and mechanical deformation, the potential change of LMFM-FRE is minimal. In general, the materials used and fabrication by inkjet printing make it possible to manufacture the reference electrode on a large scale, which is particularly important in many electrochemical sensing fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Lu
- Key Lab of Smart Agriculture Systems, Ministry of Education, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Key Lab of Smart Agriculture Systems, Ministry of Education, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, PR China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, P. R. China
| | - Liru Wang
- Key Lab of Smart Agriculture Systems, Ministry of Education, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Gang Liu
- Key Lab of Smart Agriculture Systems, Ministry of Education, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, PR China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, P. R. China
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6
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Nigde M, Agir I, Yıldırım R, Isildak I. Development and comparison of various rod-shaped mini-reference electrode compositions based on Ag/AgCl for potentiometric applications. Analyst 2022; 147:516-526. [PMID: 35044380 DOI: 10.1039/d1an01754c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Several fundamentally similar, miniaturized solid-state reference electrode designs, and their fabrication and comparison are described in this article. All electrodes were based on Ag/AgCl as their reference element. The best electrode (a three-layer assembly with graphite oxide, epoxy, and hardener as the framework providers and with well-mixed micro-Ag particles in the bottom layer, AgCl in the middle layer, and fine KCl powder in the top layer) exhibited satisfactory short-term performance to replace a commercial reference electrode in many cases and was rigorously tested in terms of pH response, long-term leakage, and the effect of oxygen to better evaluate its characteristics. To assess the electrode's performance in medically important studies, cytotoxicity experiments and tests in artificial saliva were also conducted. All tests demonstrated that our best reference electrode was stable and had a long shelf life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Nigde
- Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34220, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Ismail Agir
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Bioengineering, Istanbul Medeniyet University, 34720, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Rıdvan Yıldırım
- Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34220, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Ibrahim Isildak
- Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34220, Istanbul, Turkey.
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7
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An unusually stable solid state Ag|AgCl reference electrode for long term continuous measurements based on a crosslinked poly(vinyl acetate)/KCl composite. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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8
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Application of Ag/AgCl Sensor for Chloride Monitoring of Mortar under Dry-Wet Cycles. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20051394. [PMID: 32143333 PMCID: PMC7085615 DOI: 10.3390/s20051394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An Ag/AgCl electrode used as a corrosion sensor in a reinforced concrete structure is considered as having good application prospect. However, its performance under complex conditions, such as dry-wet cycle condition, is not affirmed. In the current study, the performance of Ag/AgCl as chloride selective electrode in mortar exposed to dry-wet cycle condition was investigated. A simple Ag/AgCl electrode was prepared and fabricated by electrochemical anodization. These Ag/AgCl electrodes were embedded into a mortar specimen with temperature sensors, humidity sensors and anode ladder monitoring system (ALS). After 28 d curing time, the upper surface of mortar specimen was wetted (with 5% NaCl solution) and dried regularly. The obtained results indicate that Ag/AgCl electrode responds to the ingress of chloride ion, sensitively. The chloride ion concentration variation can be reflected by the potential trend. Furthermore, the balance potential of Ag/AgCl electrodes is influenced by dry-wet cycles. Compared with ALS, it demonstrates that Ag/AgCl electrodes are more sensitive to chloride. The research provides the key element for the specific application of Ag/AgCl electrode for corrosion monitoring in the future.
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Higuchi S, Okada H, Takamatsu S, Itoh T. Valve-Actuator-Integrated Reference Electrode for an Ultra-Long-Life Rumen pH Sensor. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20051249. [PMID: 32106461 PMCID: PMC7085735 DOI: 10.3390/s20051249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrated a newly developed Ag/AgCl reference electrode- with a valve-actuator for two years or longer rumen pH monitoring. Previous studies on pH sensors reported that the short lifetime of Ag/AgCl reference electrodes is caused by an outflow of internal electrolyte. We introduced a valve-actuator into a liquid junction to reduce the outflow by intermittent measurement. The results indicated that the potential change when switching the liquid junction was less than 0.5 mV and its response time was less than 0.083 s. In the 24-h potential measurement with the valve-actuator-integrated reference electrode (VAIRE), the valve was actuated once every hour, and the standard deviation of the potential was 0.29 mV. The lifetime of the VAIRE was estimated at 2.0 years calculating from an electrolyte outflow, which is significantly longer than that of conventional reference electrodes. A pH sensor using the VAIRE was estimated to operate for 2.0 years with the pH error ≤0.1, which meets the requirement of cows' rumen pH monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Higuchi
- Department of Human and Engineered Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8563, Japan; (S.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Hironao Okada
- Sensing System Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8564, Japan;
| | - Seiichi Takamatsu
- Department of Human and Engineered Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8563, Japan; (S.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Toshihiro Itoh
- Department of Human and Engineered Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8563, Japan; (S.H.); (S.T.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Silver Chloride/Ferricyanide-Based Quasi-Reference Electrode for Potentiometric Sensing Applications. CHEMOSENSORS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors8010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Processes’ occurring at the Ag/AgCl/Cl–, ([Fe(CN)6]3–/4–) ions interface study results are presented. Conditions are selected for the mixed salts’ precipitate formation on the silver surface. It has been shown that the potential of a silver screen-printed electrode (AgSPE) coated with a mixed precipitate containing silver chloride/ferricyanide is stable in the presence of [Fe(CN)6]3–/4–. The electrode can serve as a quasi-reference electrode (QRE) in electrochemical measurements in media containing ions [Fe(CN)6]3−/4−. The electrode is formed during polarization of AgSPE (0.325 V vs. Ag/AgCl/KCl, 3.5 M) in a solution containing chloride- and ferri/ferrocyanides ions. The results of the obtained QRE study by potentiometry, scanning electron microscopy and cyclic voltammetry are presented. The proposed QRE was used in a sensor system to evaluate the antioxidant activity (AOA) of solutions by hybrid potentiometric method (HPM). The results of AOA assessment of fruit juices and biofluids obtained using new QRE and commercial Ag/AgCl RE with separated spaces do not differ.
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11
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Moya A, Pol R, Martínez-Cuadrado A, Villa R, Gabriel G, Baeza M. Stable Full-Inkjet-Printed Solid-State Ag/AgCl Reference Electrode. Anal Chem 2019; 91:15539-15546. [PMID: 31730335 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
With a growing demand for the availability of inexpensive, simple, and rapid prototyped devices, the prospect of miniaturization of the reference electrodes using printing techniques becomes promising. A stable and reusable full-inkjet-printed solid-state reference electrode (IPRE) was developed. The reference electrode was fully produced by consecutive inkjet printing of several layers. Ag ink was printed and chlorinated by NaClO printing, forming a Ag/AgCl pseudoreference electrode. Then a surface protection by printing a Cl--saturated polyvinyl butyral membrane finally gave a reference electrode that demonstrated an outstanding performance comparable to commercial ones. This full inkjet printing fabrication strategy will improve the viability of producing low-cost miniaturized reference electrodes with interest in many electrochemical sensor-dependent areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Moya
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona , IMB-CNM (CSIC) , Esfera UAB, Campus Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería , Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , 28029 Madrid , Spain
| | - Roberto Pol
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Edifici C-Nord , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Carrer dels Til·lers , 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona , Spain.,GENOCOV Research Group , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona , Spain
| | - Alfonso Martínez-Cuadrado
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Edifici C-Nord , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Carrer dels Til·lers , 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona , Spain
| | - Rosa Villa
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona , IMB-CNM (CSIC) , Esfera UAB, Campus Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería , Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , 28029 Madrid , Spain
| | - Gemma Gabriel
- Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona , IMB-CNM (CSIC) , Esfera UAB, Campus Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería , Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , 28029 Madrid , Spain
| | - Mireia Baeza
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Edifici C-Nord , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Carrer dels Til·lers , 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona , Spain.,GENOCOV Research Group , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona , Spain
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12
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Hashimoto T, Kitabayashi H, Ito K, Nasu H, Ishihara A, Nishio Y. Effect of heat-treatment on the pH sensitivity of stainless-steel electrodes as pH sensors. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01239. [PMID: 30976665 PMCID: PMC6441752 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Effect of heat-treatment on the pH sensitivity of uncoated stainless-steel electrodes was investigated to comprehend the pH sensitivity of metal-oxide coated stainless-steel electrodes as novel pH sensors. The pH sensitivity of stainless-steel electrodes as-received and heat-treated at 500 °C, 600 °C and 700 °C for 24 h were 91 %, 94 %, 102 % and 91 %, respectively. The pH sensitivity tended to increase with increasing heat-treatment time at a given temperature. Thus, the most suitable heat-treatment condition for the stainless-steel electrodes was 600 °C for 24 h. The austenite phase (fcc) was the main phase on the surface of the heat-treated stainless-steel electrodes. Unexpectedly, the change in the martensite phase (bcc) as the second phase with heat-treatment temperature was similar to the pH sensitivity, with the martensite phase affecting the pH sensitivity. Therefore, it appeared that the pH sensitivity of the metal-oxide coated stainless-steel electrodes was affected by the underlying stainless-steel as well as the outer metal-oxide film coating. A prototype stainless-steel tube electrode was used as a working electrode for demonstrating the depth profiling of pH. The stainless-steel tube electrode showed good performance for measuring pH depth profiles compared to commercially available glass electrodes.
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13
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Islam MT, Ashraf FB, Alam T, Misran N, Mat KB. A Compact Ultrawideband Antenna Based on Hexagonal Split-Ring Resonator for pH Sensor Application. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18092959. [PMID: 30189669 PMCID: PMC6163227 DOI: 10.3390/s18092959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 09/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A compact ultrawideband (UWB) antenna based on a hexagonal split-ring resonator (HSRR) is presented in this paper for sensing the pH factor. The modified HSRR is a new concept regarding the conventional square split-ring resonator (SSRR). Two HSRRs are interconnected with a strip line and a split in one HSRR is introduced to increase the electrical length and coupling effect. The presented UWB antenna consists of three unit cells on top of the radiating patch element. This combination of UWB antenna and HSRR gives double-negative characteristics which increase the sensitivity of the UWB antenna for the pH sensor. The proposed ultrawideband antenna metamaterial sensor was designed and fabricated on FR-4 substrate. The electrical length of the proposed metamaterial antenna sensor is 0.238 × 0.194 × 0.016 λ, where λ is the lowest frequency of 3 GHz. The fractional bandwidth and bandwidth dimension ratio were achieved with the metamaterial-inspired antenna as 146.91% and 3183.05, respectively. The operating frequency of this antenna sensor covers the bandwidth of 17 GHz, starting from 3 to 20 GHz with a realized gain of 3.88 dB. The proposed HSRR-based ultrawideband antenna sensor is found to reach high gain and bandwidth while maintaining the smallest electrical size, a highly desired property for pH-sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Tariqul Islam
- Centre of Advanced Electronic and Communication Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor D.E. 43600, Malaysia.
| | - Farhad Bin Ashraf
- Centre of Advanced Electronic and Communication Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor D.E. 43600, Malaysia.
| | - Touhidul Alam
- Centre of Advanced Electronic and Communication Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor D.E. 43600, Malaysia.
| | - Norbahiah Misran
- Centre of Advanced Electronic and Communication Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor D.E. 43600, Malaysia.
| | - Kamarulzaman Bin Mat
- Centre of Advanced Electronic and Communication Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor D.E. 43600, Malaysia.
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14
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Modena MM, Chawla K, Misun PM, Hierlemann A. Smart Cell Culture Systems: Integration of Sensors and Actuators into Microphysiological Systems. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1767-1784. [PMID: 29381325 PMCID: PMC5959007 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b01029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Technological advances in microfabrication techniques in combination with organotypic cell and tissue models have enabled the realization of microphysiological systems capable of recapitulating aspects of human physiology in vitro with great fidelity. Concurrently, a number of analysis techniques has been developed to probe and characterize these model systems. However, many assays are still performed off-line, which severely compromises the possibility of obtaining real-time information from the samples under examination, and which also limits the use of these platforms in high-throughput analysis. In this review, we focus on sensing and actuation schemes that have already been established or offer great potential to provide in situ detection or manipulation of relevant cell or tissue samples in microphysiological platforms. We will first describe methods that can be integrated in a straightforward way and that offer potential multiplexing and/or parallelization of sensing and actuation functions. These methods include electrical impedance spectroscopy, electrochemical biosensors, and the use of surface acoustic waves for manipulation and analysis of cells, tissue, and multicellular organisms. In the second part, we will describe two sensor approaches based on surface-plasmon resonance and mechanical resonators that have recently provided new characterization features for biological samples, although technological limitations for use in high-throughput applications still exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario M. Modena
- ETH Zürich, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering,
Bio Engineering Laboratory, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ketki Chawla
- ETH Zürich, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering,
Bio Engineering Laboratory, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Patrick M. Misun
- ETH Zürich, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering,
Bio Engineering Laboratory, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Hierlemann
- ETH Zürich, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering,
Bio Engineering Laboratory, Basel, Switzerland
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15
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Tseng SC, Wu TY, Chou JC, Liao YH, Lai CH, Yan SJ, Tseng TW. Investigation of Sensitivities and Drift Effects of the Arrayed Flexible Chloride Sensor Based on RuO₂/GO at Different Temperatures. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18020632. [PMID: 29461506 PMCID: PMC5855318 DOI: 10.3390/s18020632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
We investigate the temperature effect on sensing characteristics and drift effect of an arrayed flexible ruthenium dioxide (RuO2)/graphene oxide (GO) chloride sensor at different solution temperatures between 10 °C and 50 °C. The average sensor sensitivities according to our experimental results were 28.2 ± 1.4 mV/pCl (10 °C), 42.5 ± 2.0 mV/pCl (20 °C), 47.1 ± 1.8 mV/pCl (30 °C), 54.1 ± 2.01 mV/pCl (40 °C) and 46.6 ± 2.1 mV/pCl (50 °C). We found the drift effects of an arrayed flexible RuO2/GO chloride sensor in a 1 M NaCl solution to be between 8.2 mV/h and 2.5 mV/h with solution temperatures from 10 °C to 50 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Chang Tseng
- Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Tong-Yu Wu
- Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Jung-Chuan Chou
- Department of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
- Graduate School of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Yi-Hung Liao
- Department of Information and Electronic Commerce Management, TransWorld University, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Chih-Hsien Lai
- Department of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
- Graduate School of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Siao-Jie Yan
- Graduate School of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
| | - Ting-Wei Tseng
- Department of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu 64002, Taiwan.
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16
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Rahman T, Ichiki T. Fabrication and Characterization of a Stabilized Thin Film Ag/AgCl Reference Electrode Modified with Self-Assembled Monolayer of Alkane Thiol Chains for Rapid Biosensing Applications. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17102326. [PMID: 29027914 PMCID: PMC5677391 DOI: 10.3390/s17102326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The fabrication of miniaturized electrical biosensing devices can enable the rapid on-chip detection of biomarkers such as miRNA molecules, which is highly important in early-stage cancer detection. The challenge in realizing such devices remains in the miniaturization of the reference electrodes, which is an integral part of electrical detection. Here, we report on a novel thin film Ag/AgCl reference electrode (RE) that has been fabricated on top of a Au-sputtered glass surface, which was coated with a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of 6-mercepto-1-hexanol (MCH). The electrode showed very little measurement deviation (−1.5 mv) from a commercial Ag/AgCl reference electrode and exhibited a potential drift of only ± 0.2 mV/h. In addition, the integration of this SAM-modified microfabricated thin film RE enabled the rapid detection (<30 min) of miRNA (let-7a). The electrode can be integrated seamlessly into a microfluidic device, allowing the highly stable and fast measurement of surface potential and is expected to be very useful for the development of miniature electrical biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanzilur Rahman
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North South University, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh.
| | - Takanori Ichiki
- Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 113-8656 Tokyo, Japan.
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17
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RuO₂ pH Sensor with Super-Glue-Inspired Reference Electrode. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17092036. [PMID: 28878182 PMCID: PMC5621388 DOI: 10.3390/s17092036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A pH-sensitive RuO2 electrode coated in a commercial cyanoacrylate adhesive typically exhibits very low pH sensitivity, and could be paired with a RuO2 working electrode as a differential type pH sensor. However, such sensors display poor performance in real sample matrices. A pH sensor employing a RuO2 pH-sensitive working electrode and a SiO2-PVB junction-modified RuO2 reference electrode is developed as an alternative high-performance solution. This sensor exhibits a performance similar to that of a commercial glass pH sensor in some common sample matrices, particularly, an excellent pH sensitivity of 55.7 mV/pH, a hysteresis as low as 2.7 mV, and a drift below 2.2 mV/h. The developed sensor structure opens the way towards the development of a simple, cost effective, and robust pH sensor for pH analysis in various sample matrices.
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18
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Lin WC, Brondum K, Monroe CW, Burns MA. Multifunctional Water Sensors for pH, ORP, and Conductivity Using Only Microfabricated Platinum Electrodes. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17071655. [PMID: 28753913 PMCID: PMC5539692 DOI: 10.3390/s17071655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring of the pH, oxidation-reduction-potential (ORP), and conductivity of aqueous samples is typically performed using multiple sensors. To minimize the size and cost of these sensors for practical applications, we have investigated the use of a single sensor constructed with only bare platinum electrodes deposited on a glass substrate. The sensor can measure pH from 4 to 10 while simultaneously measuring ORP from 150 to 800 mV. The device can also measure conductivity up to 8000 μS/cm in the range of 10 °C to 50 °C, and all these measurements can be made even if the water samples contain common ions found in residential water. The sensor is inexpensive (i.e., ~$0.10/unit) and has a sensing area below 1 mm2, suggesting that the unit is cost-efficient, robust, and widely applicable, including in microfluidic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Chi Lin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | | | - Charles W Monroe
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK.
| | - Mark A Burns
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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19
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Branch SD, Lines AM, Lynch J, Bello JM, Heineman WR, Bryan SA. Optically Transparent Thin-Film Electrode Chip for Spectroelectrochemical Sensing. Anal Chem 2017; 89:7324-7332. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shirmir D. Branch
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0172, United States
| | - Amanda M. Lines
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - John Lynch
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0172, United States
| | - Job M. Bello
- EIC Laboratories Inc., Norwood, Massachusetts 02062, United States
| | - William R. Heineman
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0172, United States
| | - Samuel A. Bryan
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
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20
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Fabrication of a Miniature Multi-Parameter Sensor Chip for Water Quality Assessment. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17010157. [PMID: 28098824 PMCID: PMC5298730 DOI: 10.3390/s17010157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Water contamination is a main inducement of human diseases. It is an important step to monitor the water quality in the water distribution system. Due to the features of large size, high cost, and complicated structure of traditional water determination sensors and devices, it is difficult to realize real-time water monitoring on a large scale. In this paper, we present a multi-parameter sensor chip, which is miniature, low-cost, and robust, to detect the pH, conductivity, and temperature of water simultaneously. The sensor chip was fabricated using micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) techniques. Iridium oxide film was electrodeposited as the pH-sensing material. The atomic ratio of Ir(III) to Ir(IV) is about 1.38 according to the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. The pH sensing electrode showed super-Nernstian response (−67.60 mV/pH) and good linearity (R2 = 0.9997), in the range of pH 2.22 to pH 11.81. KCl-agar and epoxy were used as the electrolyte layer and liquid junction for the solid-state reference electrode, respectively, and its potential stability in deionized water was 56 h. The conductivity cell exhibited a linear determination range from 21.43 μS/cm to 1.99 mS/cm, and the electrode constant was 1.566 cm−1. Sensitivity of the temperature sensor was 5.46 Ω/°C. The results indicate that the developed sensor chip has potential application in water quality measurements.
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21
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Sarkar S, Lai SCS, Lemay SG. Unconventional Electrochemistry in Micro-/Nanofluidic Systems. MICROMACHINES 2016; 7:E81. [PMID: 30404256 PMCID: PMC6189913 DOI: 10.3390/mi7050081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemistry is ideally suited to serve as a detection mechanism in miniaturized analysis systems. A significant hurdle can, however, be the implementation of reliable micrometer-scale reference electrodes. In this tutorial review, we introduce the principal challenges and discuss the approaches that have been employed to build suitable references. We then discuss several alternative strategies aimed at eliminating the reference electrode altogether, in particular two-electrode electrochemical cells, bipolar electrodes and chronopotentiometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahana Sarkar
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Stanley C S Lai
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Serge G Lemay
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
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