1
|
Orfanos M, Perakis H, Gikas V, Retscher G, Mpimis T, Spyropoulou I, Papathanasopoulou V. Testing and Evaluation of Wi-Fi RTT Ranging Technology for Personal Mobility Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2829. [PMID: 36905033 PMCID: PMC10007519 DOI: 10.3390/s23052829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The rapid growth in the technological advancements of the smartphone industry has classified contemporary smartphones as a low-cost and high quality indoor positioning tools requiring no additional infrastructure or equipment. In recent years, the fine time measurement (FTM) protocol, achieved through the Wi-Fi round trip time (RTT) observable, available in the most recent models, has gained the interest of many research teams worldwide, especially those concerned with indoor localization problems. However, as the Wi-Fi RTT technology is still new, there is a limited number of studies addressing its potential and limitations relative to the positioning problem. This paper presents an investigation and performance evaluation of Wi-Fi RTT capability with a focus on range quality assessment. A set of experimental tests was carried out, considering 1D and 2D space, operating different smartphone devices at various operational settings and observation conditions. Furthermore, in order to address device-dependent and other type of biases in the raw ranges, alternative correction models were developed and tested. The obtained results indicate that Wi-Fi RTT is a promising technology capable of achieving a meter-level accuracy for ranges both in line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) conditions, subject to suitable corrections identification and adaptation. From 1D ranging tests, an average mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.85 m and 1.24 m is achieved, for LOS and NLOS conditions, respectively, for 80% of the validation sample data. In 2D-space ranging tests, an average root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.1m is accomplished across the different devices. Furthermore, the analysis has shown that the selection of the bandwidth and the initiator-responder pair are crucial for the correction model selection, whilst knowledge of the type of operating environment (LOS and/or NLOS) can further contribute to Wi-Fi RTT range performance enhancement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manos Orfanos
- School of Rural, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Harris Perakis
- School of Rural, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Vassilis Gikas
- School of Rural, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Günther Retscher
- Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, TU Wien—Vienna University of Technology, 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thanassis Mpimis
- School of Rural, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioanna Spyropoulou
- School of Rural, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Vasileia Papathanasopoulou
- School of Rural, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yaro AS, Maly F, Prazak P. A Survey of the Performance-Limiting Factors of a 2-Dimensional RSS Fingerprinting-Based Indoor Wireless Localization System. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2545. [PMID: 36904748 PMCID: PMC10007222 DOI: 10.3390/s23052545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A receive signal strength (RSS) fingerprinting-based indoor wireless localization system (I-WLS) uses a localization machine learning (ML) algorithm to estimate the location of an indoor user using RSS measurements as the position-dependent signal parameter (PDSP). There are two stages in the system's localization process: the offline phase and the online phase. The offline phase starts with the collection and generation of RSS measurement vectors from radio frequency (RF) signals received at fixed reference locations, followed by the construction of an RSS radio map. In the online phase, the instantaneous location of an indoor user is found by searching the RSS-based radio map for a reference location whose RSS measurement vector corresponds to the user's instantaneously acquired RSS measurements. The performance of the system depends on a number of factors that are present in both the online and offline stages of the localization process. This survey identifies these factors and examines how they impact the overall performance of the 2-dimensional (2-D) RSS fingerprinting-based I-WLS. The effects of these factors are discussed, as well as previous researchers' suggestions for minimizing or mitigating them and future research trends in RSS fingerprinting-based I-WLS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdulmalik Shehu Yaro
- Department of Informatics and Quantitative Methods, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810106, Nigeria
| | - Filip Maly
- Department of Informatics and Quantitative Methods, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Prazak
- Department of Informatics and Quantitative Methods, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jiang JR, Subakti H. An Indoor Location-Based Augmented Reality Framework. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:1370. [PMID: 36772414 PMCID: PMC9919293 DOI: 10.3390/s23031370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This paper proposes an indoor location-based augmented reality framework (ILARF) for the development of indoor augmented-reality (AR) systems. ILARF integrates an indoor localization unit (ILU), a secure context-aware message exchange unit (SCAMEU), and an AR visualization and interaction unit (ARVIU). The ILU runs on a mobile device such as a smartphone and utilizes visible markers (e.g., images and text), invisible markers (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth Low Energy, and NFC signals), and device sensors (e.g., accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers) to determine the device location and direction. The SCAMEU utilizes a message queuing telemetry transport (MQTT) server to exchange ambient sensor data (e.g., temperature, light, and humidity readings) and user data (e.g., user location and user speed) for context-awareness. The unit also employs a web server to manage user profiles and settings. The ARVIU uses AR creation tools to handle user interaction and display context-aware information in appropriate areas of the device's screen. One prototype AR app for use in gyms, Gym Augmented Reality (GAR), was developed based on ILARF. Users can register their profiles and configure settings when using GAR to visit a gym. Then, GAR can help users locate appropriate gym equipment based on their workout programs or favorite exercise specified in their profiles. GAR provides instructions on how to properly use the gym equipment and also makes it possible for gym users to socialize with each other, which may motivate them to go to the gym regularly. GAR is compared with other related AR systems. The comparison shows that GAR is superior to others by virtue of its use of ILARF; specifically, it provides more information, such as user location and direction, and has more desirable properties, such as secure communication and a 3D graphical user interface.
Collapse
|
4
|
Gao L, Konomi S. Indoor Spatiotemporal Contact Analytics Using Landmark-Aided Pedestrian Dead Reckoning on Smartphones. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 23:113. [PMID: 36616711 PMCID: PMC9823719 DOI: 10.3390/s23010113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Due to the prevalence of COVID-19, providing safe environments and reducing the risks of virus exposure play pivotal roles in our daily lives. Contact tracing is a well-established and widely-used approach to track and suppress the spread of viruses. Most digital contact tracing systems can detect direct face-to-face contact based on estimated proximity, without quantifying the exposed virus concentration. In particular, they rarely allow for quantitative analysis of indirect environmental exposure due to virus survival time in the air and constant airborne transmission. In this work, we propose an indoor spatiotemporal contact awareness framework (iSTCA), which explicitly considers the self-containing quantitative contact analytics approach with spatiotemporal information to provide accurate awareness of the virus quanta concentration in different origins at various times. Smartphone-based pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR) is employed to precisely detect the locations and trajectories for distance estimation and time assessment without the need to deploy extra infrastructure. The PDR technique we employ calibrates the accumulative error by identifying spatial landmarks automatically. We utilized a custom deep learning model composed of bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM) and multi-head convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for extracting the local correlation and long-term dependency to recognize landmarks. By considering the spatial distance and time difference in an integrated manner, we can quantify the virus quanta concentration of the entire indoor environment at any time with all contributed virus particles. We conducted an extensive experiment based on practical scenarios to evaluate the performance of the proposed system, showing that the average positioning error is reduced to less than 0.7 m with high confidence and demonstrating the validity of our system for the virus quanta concentration quantification involving virus movement in a complex indoor environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Gao
- Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Shin’ichi Konomi
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Farhad A, Pyun JY. Resource Management for Massive Internet of Things in IEEE 802.11ah WLAN: Potentials, Current Solutions, and Open Challenges. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22239509. [PMID: 36502211 PMCID: PMC9738663 DOI: 10.3390/s22239509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
IEEE 802.11ah, known as Wi-Fi HaLow, is envisioned for long-range and low-power communication. It is sub-1 GHz technology designed for massive Internet of Things (IoT) and machine-to-machine devices. It aims to overcome the IoT challenges, such as providing connectivity to massive power-constrained devices distributed over a large geographical area. To accomplish this objective, IEEE 802.11ah introduces several unique physical and medium access control layer (MAC) features. In recent years, the MAC features of IEEE 802.11ah, including restricted access window, authentication (e.g., centralized and distributed) and association, relay and sectorization, target wake-up time, and traffic indication map, have been intensively investigated from various aspects to improve resource allocation and enhance the network performance in terms of device association time, throughput, delay, and energy consumption. This survey paper presents an in-depth assessment and analysis of these MAC features along with current solutions, their potentials, and key challenges, exposing how to use these novel features to meet the rigorous IoT standards.
Collapse
|
6
|
Minea M. An Experimental Assessment of People's Location Efficiency Using Low-Energy Communications-Based Movement Tracking. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:9025. [PMID: 36433620 PMCID: PMC9696255 DOI: 10.3390/s22229025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: public transport demand dynamics represents important information for fleet managers and is also a key factor in making public transport attractive to reduce the environmental footprint of urban traffic. This research presents some experimental results on the assessment of low-energy communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, as support for people density and/or movement tracking sensing technologies. (2) Methods: the research is based on field measurements to determine the percentage of discoverable devices carried by people, in relation to the total number of physical persons in interest, different scenarios of mobile devices usage and evaluation of influences on radio signals' propagation, RSSI / RX read values, and efficiency of indoor localization, or in similar GPS-denied environments. Different situations are investigated, especially public transport-related ones, such as subway stations, indoors of commuting hubs, railway stations and trains. (3) Results: diagrams and experiments are presented, and models of signal behavior are also proposed. (4) Conclusions: recommendations on the efficiency of these non-conventional traveler and passenger flow tracking solutions and models are presented at the end of the paper.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marius Minea
- Department of Telematics and Electronics for Transports, Transports Faculty, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Theodorou P, Tsiligkos K, Meliones A, Tsigris A. An extended usability and UX evaluation of a mobile application for the navigation of individuals with blindness and visual impairments indoors: An evaluation approach combined with training sessions. BRITISH JOURNAL OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/02646196221131739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Navigating indoor spaces is especially challenging for individuals with blindness and visual impairments. Although many solutions currently exist, the acceptance of most of them is extremely poor due to their technical limitations and the complete lack of taking into consideration factors, such as usability and the perceived experience among others, which influence adoption rates. To alleviate this problem, we created BlindMuseumTourer, a state-of-the-art indoor navigation smartphone application that tracks and navigates the user inside the spaces of a museum. At the same time, it provides services for narration and description of the exhibits. The proposed system consists of an Android application that leverages the sensors found on smartphones and utilizes a novel pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR) mechanism that optionally takes input from the Bluetooth low energy (BLE) beacons specially mounted on the exhibits. This article presents the extended Usability and User Experience evaluation of BlindMuseumTourer and the findings carried out with 30 participants having varying degrees of blindness. Throughout this process, we received feedback for improving both the available functionality and the specialized user-centred training sessions in which blind users are first exposed to our application’s functionality. The methodology of this evaluation employs standardized questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, and the results indicate an overall positive attitude from the users. In the future, we intend to extend the number and type of indoor spaces supported by our application.
Collapse
|
8
|
Mogyorósi F, Revisnyei P, Pašić A, Papp Z, Törös I, Varga P, Pašić A. Positioning in 5G and 6G Networks—A Survey. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22134757. [PMID: 35808254 PMCID: PMC9268850 DOI: 10.3390/s22134757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Determining the position of ourselves or our assets has always been important to humans. Technology has helped us, from sextants to outdoor global positioning systems, but real-time indoor positioning has been a challenge. Among the various solutions, network-based positioning became an option with the arrival of 5G mobile networks. The new radio technologies, minimized end-to-end latency, specialized control protocols, and booming computation capacities at the network edge offered the opportunity to leverage the overall capabilities of the 5G network for positioning—indoors and outdoors. This paper provides an overview of network-based positioning, from the basics to advanced, state-of-the-art machine-learning-supported solutions. One of the main contributions is the detailed comparison of machine learning techniques used for network-based positioning. Since new requirements are already in place for 6G networks, our paper makes a leap towards positioning with 6G networks. In order to also highlight the practical side of the topic, application examples from different domains are presented with a special focus on industrial and vehicular scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Mogyorósi
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (F.M.); (P.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Péter Revisnyei
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (F.M.); (P.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Azra Pašić
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (F.M.); (P.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Zsófia Papp
- Ericsson Research, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary; (Z.P.); (I.T.)
| | - István Törös
- Ericsson Research, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary; (Z.P.); (I.T.)
| | - Pál Varga
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (F.M.); (P.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Alija Pašić
- Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary; (F.M.); (P.R.); (A.P.); (A.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
A smartphone plummeted from a stratospheric height of 36 km, providing a near-real-time record of its rapid descent and ground impact. An app recorded and streamed useful internal multi-sensor data at high sample rates. Signal fusion with external and internal sensor systems permitted a more detailed reconstruction of the Skyfall chronology, including its descent speed, rotation rate, and impact deceleration. Our results reinforce the potential of smartphones as an agile and versatile geophysical data collection system for environmental and disaster monitoring IoT applications. We discuss mobile environmental sensing capabilities and present a flexible data model to record and stream signals of interest. The Skyfall case study can be used as a guide to smartphone signal processing methods that are transportable to other hardware platforms and operating systems.
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Many distributed systems that perform indoor positioning are often based on ultrasound signals and time domain measurements exchanged between low-cost ultrasound transceivers. Synchronization between transmitters and receivers is usually needed. In this paper, the use of BLE technology to achieve time synchronization by wirelessly triggered ultrasound transceivers is analyzed. Building on a previous work, the proposed solution uses BLE technology as communication infrastructure and achieves a level of synchronization compatible with Time of Flight (ToF)-based distance estimations and positioning. The proposed solution was validated experimentally. First, a measurement campaign of the time-synchronization delay for the adopted embedded platforms was carried out. Then, ToF-based distance estimations and positioning were performed. The results show that an accurate and low-cost ToF-based positioning system is achievable, using ultrasound transmissions and triggered by BLE RF transmissions.
Collapse
|
11
|
Enhanced PDR-BLE Compensation Mechanism Based on HMM and AWCLA for Improving Indoor Localization. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21216972. [PMID: 34770279 PMCID: PMC8588401 DOI: 10.3390/s21216972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents an enhanced PDR-BLE compensation mechanism for improving indoor localization, which is considerably resilient against variant uncertainties. The proposed method of ePDR-BLE compensation mechanism (EPBCM) takes advantage of the non-requirement of linearization of the system around its current state in an unscented Kalman filter (UKF) and Kalman filter (KF) in smoothing of received signal strength indicator (RSSI) values. In this paper, a fusion of conflicting information and the activity detection approach of an object in an indoor environment contemplates varying magnitude of accelerometer values based on the hidden Markov model (HMM). On the estimated orientation, the proposed approach remunerates the inadvertent body acceleration and magnetic distortion sensor data. Moreover, EPBCM can precisely calculate the velocity and position by reducing the position drift, which gives rise to a fault in zero-velocity and heading error. The developed EPBCM localization algorithm using Bluetooth low energy beacons (BLE) was applied and analyzed in an indoor environment. The experiments conducted in an indoor scenario shows the results of various activities performed by the object and achieves better orientation estimation, zero velocity measurements, and high position accuracy than other methods in the literature.
Collapse
|
12
|
Map-Aided Indoor Positioning Algorithm with Complex Deployed BLE Beacons. ISPRS INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEO-INFORMATION 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/ijgi10080526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
As communication technology and smartphones develop, many indoor positioning applications based on Bluetooth low energy (BLE) beacons have emerged. However, in a complex BLE network, it can be challenging to select the optimal reference beacon, and accurate positioning becomes difficult. Fortunately, if the BLE network is displayed on a map, we can intuitively grasp the structure and density of the beacons in each area, which is important information for accurate positioning. Therefore, in this study we developed a map-aided indoor positioning algorithm to model the relationship between beacons in the positioning area in a parking lot. Specifically, the algorithm split all beacons into multiple cell areas to find the optimal reference beacon in that area. Then, the optimal reference beacon is used to find the preferred reference beacons among the real-time beacons. Finally, the positioning results were calculated and evaluated according to the preferred beacons. According to the results, our method can optimize the selection of reference beacons in different areas. The average positioning accuracy was 2.09 m and the results can be scored accurately. The results verify that our algorithm can effectively use map information to guide the selection of reference beacons in complex environments.
Collapse
|
13
|
Indoor Positioning and Navigation. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21144793. [PMID: 34300533 PMCID: PMC8309882 DOI: 10.3390/s21144793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Recently, the social and commercial interest in location-based services (LBS) has been increasing significantly [...].
Collapse
|
14
|
Mobile Networks and Internet of Things Infrastructures to Characterize Smart Human Mobility. SMART CITIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/smartcities4020046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of Mobile Networks and Internet of Things (IoT) architectures allows one to rethink the way smart cities infrastructures are designed and managed, and solve a number of problems in terms of human mobility. The territories that adopt the sensoring era can take advantage of this disruptive technology to improve the quality of mobility of their citizens and the rationalization of their resources. However, with this rapid development of smart terminals and infrastructures, as well as the proliferation of diversified applications, even current networks may not be able to completely meet quickly rising human mobility demands. Thus, they are facing many challenges and to cope with these challenges, different standards and projects have been proposed so far. Accordingly, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been utilized as a new paradigm for the design and optimization of mobile networks with a high level of intelligence. The objective of this work is to identify and discuss the challenges of mobile networks, alongside IoT and AI, to characterize smart human mobility and to discuss some workable solutions to these challenges. Finally, based on this discussion, we propose paths for future smart human mobility researches.
Collapse
|
15
|
Pau G, Arena F, Gebremariam YE, You I. Bluetooth 5.1: An Analysis of Direction Finding Capability for High-Precision Location Services. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21113589. [PMID: 34064147 PMCID: PMC8196737 DOI: 10.3390/s21113589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents an in-depth overview of the Bluetooth 5.1 Direction Finding standard’s potentials, thanks to enhancing the Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) firmware. This improvement allows producers to create location applications based on the Angle of Departure (AoD) and the Angle of Arrival (AoA). Accordingly, it is conceivable to design proper Indoor Positioning Systems (IPS), for instance, for the traceability of resources, assets, and people. First of all, Radio Frequency (RF) radiogoniometry techniques, helpful in calculating AoA and AoD angles, are introduced in this paper. Subsequently, the topic relating to signal direction estimation is deepened. The Bluetooth Core Specification updates concerning version 5.1, both at the packet architecture and prototyping levels, are also reported. Some suitable platforms and development kits for running the new features are then presented, and some basic applications are illustrated. This paper’s final part allows ascertaining the improvement made by this new definition of BLE and possible future developments, especially concerning applications related to devices, assets, or people’s indoor localization. Some preliminary results gathered in a real evaluation scenario are also presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Pau
- Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy; (G.P.); (F.A.)
| | - Fabio Arena
- Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy; (G.P.); (F.A.)
| | - Yonas Engida Gebremariam
- Department of ICT Environmental Health System, Graduate School, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea;
| | - Ilsun You
- Department of ICT Environmental Health System, Graduate School, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea;
- Department of Information Security Engineering, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
An Automated Indoor Localization System for Online Bluetooth Signal Strength Modeling Using Visual-Inertial SLAM. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21082857. [PMID: 33921567 PMCID: PMC8073482 DOI: 10.3390/s21082857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Indoor localization is becoming increasingly important but is not yet widespread because installing the necessary infrastructure is often time-consuming and labor-intensive, which drives up the price. This paper presents an automated indoor localization system that combines all the necessary components to realize low-cost Bluetooth localization with the least data acquisition and network configuration overhead. The proposed system incorporates a sophisticated visual-inertial localization algorithm for a fully automated collection of Bluetooth signal strength data. A suitable collection of measurements can be quickly and easily performed, clearly defining which part of the space is not yet well covered by measurements. The obtained measurements, which can also be collected via the crowdsourcing approach, are used within a constrained nonlinear optimization algorithm. The latter is implemented on a smartphone and allows the online determination of the beacons’ locations and the construction of path loss models, which are validated in real-time using the particle swarm localization algorithm. The proposed system represents an advanced innovation as the application user can quickly find out when there are enough data collected for the expected radiolocation accuracy. In this way, radiolocation becomes much less time-consuming and labor-intensive as the configuration time is reduced by more than half. The experiment results show that the proposed system achieves a good trade-off in terms of network setup complexity and localization accuracy. The developed system for automated data acquisition and online modeling on a smartphone has proved to be very useful, as it can significantly simplify and speed up the installation of the Bluetooth network, especially in wide-area facilities.
Collapse
|