A Systematic Review of AR and VR Enhanced Language Learning

Extended reality in language learning: A cognitive affective model of immersive learning perspective

A surge in the interest and implementation of extended reality (XR)-based lessons in language learning has resulted in many related studies. Recent reviews that summarized these studies and the previous studies focus on the technologies used in language-learning settings or the different ways of incorporating XR tools in language-learning activities. However, less work has been done to synthesize XR-based language-learning studies from a language-learning theory perspective. Thus, this study delineates the contour of scholarly literature on XR in language learning using the Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL). The model contains six affective and cognitive factors that lead to XR-based learning: interest, motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load, and self-regulation. This model was adopted in the current study to systematically synthesize the findings from primary studies published between 2017 and 2022 to construct XR explanations on language learning from a cognitive theory perspective. Studies published in 12 indexed privileged journals in the language education and technology field on XR in language learning were reviewed. The results showed that the factors in the CAMIL led to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition and transfer. This study provides some insights into understanding the cognitive outcomes of XR-based language learning by analyzing the findings from previous studies. Suggestions for future studies are proposed in this study.

A Systematic Review of Machine-Translation-Assisted Language Learning for Sustainable Education

With the rapid development of artificial intelligence, machine translation (MT) has gained popularity in recent years. This study aims to present a systematic review of literature on MT-assisted language learning in terms of main users, theoretical frameworks, users’ attitudes, and the ways in which MT tools are integrated with language teaching and learning. To this end, relevant peer-reviewed articles (n = 26) were selected through the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocol (PRISMA-P) for further analysis. The findings revealed that the main MT users were undergraduate and graduate students. Both teachers and students held mixed attitudes for different reasons. It was also found that MT integration followed four steps, i.e., introduction, demonstration, task assignment, and reflection. The procedures of MT integration could be updated and perfected by introducing other features in the future.

Impacts of augmented reality on foreign language teaching: a case study of Persian language

The use of information technology in the field of foreign language teaching as an auxiliary tool is very important. In a foreign language classroom, place is just an abstract concept; where the language is separated from the community, culture and places in which it is used. Augmented reality is a technology in which virtual components are simultaneously combined with the real environment. Our aim in this study is to investigate the effects of location-based augmented reality in teaching Persian as a foreign language. In this study, after consulting with professors in the field of Persian language teaching and reviewing similar researches, we came to the conclusion that nothing has been done to teach Persian language using augmented reality. Therefore, a Persian game based on augmented reality was designed and implemented and then evaluated. For evaluation, two methods have been used; the user and the heuristic evaluation. Experts in the field of Persian language teaching, human-computer interaction and a number of language learners participated in the evaluation. Their feedback shows that the use of augmented reality increases satisfaction, enthusiasm and interaction with the environment and people, and also makes the process of learning and memorizing concepts more efficient.

Integrating augmented reality in language learning: pre-service teachers' digital competence and attitudes through the TPACK framework

Although the use of Augmented Reality (AR) in language learning has increased over the last two decades, there is still little research on the preparation of pre-service teachers as AR content creators. This paper focuses on analyzing the digital competence and attitudes of teacher candidates to integrate AR in the foreign language classroom. For this purpose, eighty-five college students were assigned into different teams to create their own AR-based projects which aimed at teaching English and content to young learners. The teacher candidates employed several software development kits (SDKs) to construct collaborative AR projects in a five-week period, including discursive and illustrative representations of the learning content. In this research based on a mixed method, quantitative and qualitative data were gathered trough AR project presentations and surveys encompassing two validated scales, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework and the Augmented Reality Applications Attitudes Scale (ARAAS). The statistical data and qualitative findings revealed that the participants lacked practical knowledge on AR content creation and implementation in Education. The major problems were related to the TPK (Technological Pedagogical Knowledge) intersection since participants had been previously trained in AR technology just as recipients and not as content creators and educators.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10639-022-11123-3.

Technology-Enhanced Education through VR-Making and Metaverse-Linking to Foster Teacher Readiness and Sustainable Learning

The main purpose of this paper is to bring pioneering insights into the core line of sustainable education research by investigating the multi-dimensional aspects of teachers’ readiness to design technology-enhanced learning environments. In order to achieve this goal, this study documents the experiences of pre-service English teachers in instructional Virtual Reality (herein, VR) content design of K–12 English digital textbooks. Furthermore, it examines how their VR creation can be linked to a metaverse platform for learning adaptivity and sustainable education. The data are collected by pre-/post-surveys as well as reflective papers. The pre-/post-survey responses are analyzed with a t-test to determine significance; the reflective paper entries are scrutinized with sentiment analysis and text mining. The study findings suggest that such transformative experiences of VR-Making (herein, VRM) for instructional contents are conducive to capacitate pre-service teachers’ technological readiness, 4Cs (Critical Thinking, Creativity, Collaboration, Communication) in digital citizenship, and perceived pedagogical benefits. Based on findings, this study continues to support the need for providing teaching practitioners with hands-on learning-to-teach opportunities with emerging technology as a tool to fulfill sustainable education.

Preliminary investigations for the development of a virtual reality-based English-language communication program: Using the Delphi method

The purpose of this study was to gather opinions from experts via the Delphi method to inform the future development of a virtual reality based English language communication program for university level students in Korea. The participants, who consisted of a panel of experts and professors who majored in English language and multimedia education, completed three Delphi surveys based on Context, Input, Process, and Product evaluation, which is referred to as CIPP. In the first Delphi survey, the participants answered multiple choice questions and open-ended questions related to four areas relevant to the development of a virtual reality based program. Based on their answers, a second Delphi survey was designed to determine the participants’ level of agreement with the appropriateness of the questions related to the four areas. In the third Delphi survey, participants were shown the results (mean, standard deviation, median, interquartile range, consensus chart, and convergence degree) and were asked to confirm or modify their answers based on the other participants’ answers. According to the analysis of the Delphi survey results, need for the development of a virtual reality based English language communication program was suggested, and recommendations were made regarding the content and application of the program.

The Effects of Virtual Reality-Assisted Language Learning: A Meta-Analysis

Existing literature reflects that VR technology is widely used in language learning settings. Although many studies have identified the multiple benefits and affordance of Virtual Reality (VR) technologies in language learning, most studies are qualitative studies that do not provide substantial evidence to investigate the impact of this technology on language learning. To this end, this study conducted a meta-analysis of 21 quantitative studies with 1144 participants published between 2010 and 2021. The study’s main purpose was to examine the effects of VR on students’ language learning academic performance, including linguistic gains and affective gains. The results indicated that VR-assisted language learning had a medium effect on the linguistic gains (Hedges’ g = 0.662, 95% CI [0.398–0.925], p < 0.001) and affective gains (Hedges’ g = 0.570, 95% CI [0.309–0.831], p < 0.001) of students compared to non-VR conditions, respectively. Furthermore, the study further analyzed the impact of several moderator variables such as education levels, hardware types, language skills, target language, and L1/L2 on language learning gains. The research indicates that VR technology has a great potential to improve language learning as an educational resource and provides suggestions for further research and practice on the use of VR-assisted language learning.

The Contribution of Data-Driven Technologies in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set out to improve the quality of life of people in developed, emerging, and developing countries by covering social and economic aspects, with a focus on environmental sustainability. At the same time, data-driven technologies influence our lives in all areas and have caused fundamental economical and societal changes. This study presents a comprehensive literature review on how data-driven approaches have enabled or inhibited the successful achievement of the 17 SDGs to date. Our findings show that data-driven analytics and tools contribute to achieving the 17 SDGs, e.g., by making information more reliable, supporting better-informed decision-making, implementing data-based policies, prioritizing actions, and optimizing the allocation of resources. Based on a qualitative content analysis, results were aggregated into a conceptual framework, including the following categories: (1) uses of data-driven methods (e.g., monitoring, measurement, mapping or modeling, forecasting, risk assessment, and planning purposes), (2) resulting positive effects, (3) arising challenges, and (4) recommendations for action to overcome these challenges. Despite positive effects and versatile applications, problems such as data gaps, data biases, high energy consumption of computational resources, ethical concerns, privacy, ownership, and security issues stand in the way of achieving the 17 SDGs.

Towards Figurative Expression Enhancement: Effects of the SVVR-Supported Worked Example Approach on the Descriptive Writing of Highly Engaged Students

During the past decades, many researchers have attempted to explore effective teaching methods for developing students’ descriptive writing performance. In this study, the worked example was implemented as an effective way of guiding students to provide step-by-step solutions to learning tasks. Moreover, a spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) environment was provided to place students in real-world situations which enabled them to experience the learning contexts in depth. A pretest-posttest quasi experimental study was conducted to explore the influence of the SVVR-supported worked example approach and engagement level on students’ Chinese descriptive writing performance. A total of 79 fourth-grade elementary school students participated in this study. The experimental group used SVVR with worked examples to complete Chinese writing assignments, whereas the control group used videos and worked examples. The results showed no significant effects of the SVVR-supported worked example approach compared with the conventional worked example approach regarding organization, sensory details, or creativity dimensions. As for the figurative expression dimension, students in the SVVR-supported worked example approach condition scored significantly higher. Moreover, high engagement students significantly outperformed low engagement students in all four writing performance dimensions. Additionally, a significant interaction effect between learning approach and engagement level on figurative expression was found.

3D Interactive Learning Environment as a Tool for Knowledge Transfer and Retention

The article deals with the design of virtual reality (VR) interactive training as a teaching method and its effect on knowledge transfer and retention of students. The first part presents the methodology of the VR interactive training design. The second part utilizes the created interactive training for a case study to evaluate its effect on the teaching process and to examine the potential of VR interactive training as a sustainable teaching method. The study took place at the Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina. Volunteers were divided into two groups. The first group used VR interactive training as a teaching method, while the second group used the conventional method. Both groups then underwent tests. The main goal was to evaluate the effect of the VR interactive training on the teaching process in comparison to the conventional method while trying to identify the key elements of the VR interactive training design and its influence on knowledge transfer and retention in a sustainable learning environment. At the start of the case study, four hypotheses were formed, questioning the effect of interactive training on knowledge transfer and retention in the long and short term, and its overall influence on the teaching process. Obtained data were then used to evaluate these hypotheses.