1
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Tsouloufi TK. An overview of mycotoxicoses in rabbits. J Vet Diagn Invest 2024:10406387241255945. [PMID: 38804173 DOI: 10.1177/10406387241255945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxicoses are usually a consideration in large animal species but can affect companion animals as well. Due to increasing interest and the ease of using rabbits as laboratory models, a growing number of published experimental studies discuss the effects of various mycotoxins on this species. However, the available evidence is fragmented and heterogeneous, and has not recently been collated in a review, to my knowledge. Although mycotoxicoses in rabbits are typically subclinical, clinical signs can include weight loss, anorexia, gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, reproductive abnormalities, and susceptibility to infections. An antemortem diagnosis typically relies on a comprehensive clinical history, and assessment of clinical signs and relevant laboratory findings, with confirmation of exposure achieved through the measurement of mycotoxin concentrations in feed or target organs. My review focuses on the clinicopathologic and histopathologic effects of the mycotoxins most important in rabbits, including fumonisins, ochratoxins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. This review offers a thorough overview of the effects of mycotoxins in rabbits, serving as a one-stop resource for veterinary practitioners, diagnosticians, and researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora K Tsouloufi
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Idexx Laboratories, Wetherby, West Yorkshire, UK
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2
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Gomes AL, Petrus RR, de Sousa RLM, Fernandes AM. Aflatoxins and fumonisins in conventional and organic corn: a comprehensive review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2024; 41:575-586. [PMID: 38530071 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2024.2330092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
This review analyzes the occurrence and co-exposure of aflatoxins and fumonisins in conventional and organic corn, and compares the vulnerability to contamination of both. The risks of fungal contamination in corn are real, mainly by the genera Aspergillus and Fusarium, producers of aflatoxins and fumonisins, respectively. Aflatoxins, especially AFB1, are related to a high incidence of liver cancer, and the International Agency Research of Cancer (IARC) classified them in group 1A 'carcinogenic to humans'. The occurrence in conventional corn is reported in many countries, including at higher levels than those established by legislation. IARC classified fumonisins in group 2B 'possibly carcinogenic to humans' due to their link with incidence of esophageal cancer. However, comparing corn and organic and conventional by-products from different regions, different results are observed. The co-occurrence of both mycotoxins is a worldwide problem; nevertheless, there is little data on the comparison of the co-exposure of these mycotoxins in corn and derivatives between both systems. It was found that the agricultural system is not a decisive factor in the final contamination, indicating the necessity of effective strategies to reduce contamination and co-exposure at levels that do not pose health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Gomes
- Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo R Petrus
- Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Brazil
| | - Ricardo L M de Sousa
- Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Brazil
| | - Andrezza M Fernandes
- Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Brazil
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3
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Ji J, Wang D, Wang Y, Hou J. Relevant mycotoxins in oil crops, vegetable oils, de-oiled cake and meals: Occurrence, control, and recent advances in elimination. Mycotoxin Res 2024; 40:45-70. [PMID: 38133731 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00512-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins in agricultural commodities have always been a concern due to their negative impacts on human and livestock health. Issues associated with quality control, hot and humid climate, improper storage, and inappropriate production can support the development of fungus, causing oil crops to suffer from mycotoxin contamination, which in turn migrates to the resulting oil, de-oiled cake and meals during the oil processing. Related research which supports the development of multi-mycotoxin prevention programs has resulted in satisfactory mitigation effects, mainly in the pre-harvest stage. Nevertheless, preventive actions are unlikely to avoid the occurrence of mycotoxins completely, so removal strategies may still be necessary to protect consumers. Elimination of mycotoxin has been achieved broadly through the physical, biological, or chemical course. In view of the steadily increasing volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins, there is a need for ongoing integrated knowledge systems. This work revisited the knowledge of mycotoxins affecting oilseeds, food oils, cake, and meals, focusing more on their varieties, toxicity, and preventive strategies, including the methods adopted in the decontamination, which supplement the available information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junmin Ji
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Dan Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Hou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
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4
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Loi M, De Leonardis S, Ciasca B, Paciolla C, Mulè G, Haidukowski M. Aflatoxin B 1 Degradation by Ery4 Laccase: From In Vitro to Contaminated Corn. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050310. [PMID: 37235345 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. and are found in food and feed as contaminants worldwide. Due to climate change, AFs occurrence is expected to increase also in western Europe. Therefore, to ensure food and feed safety, it is mandatory to develop green technologies for AFs reduction in contaminated matrices. With this regard, enzymatic degradation is an effective and environmentally friendly approach under mild operational conditions and with minor impact on the food and feed matrix. In this work, Ery4 laccase, acetosyringone, ascorbic acid, and dehydroascorbic acid were investigated in vitro, then applied in artificially contaminated corn for AFB1 reduction. AFB1 (0.1 µg/mL) was completely removed in vitro and reduced by 26% in corn. Several degradation products were detected in vitro by UHPLC-HRMS and likely corresponded to AFQ1, epi-AFQ1, AFB1-diol, or AFB1dialehyde, AFB2a, and AFM1. Protein content was not altered by the enzymatic treatment, while slightly higher levels of lipid peroxidation and H2O2 were detected. Although further studies are needed to improve AFB1 reduction and reduce the impact of this treatment in corn, the results of this study are promising and suggest that Ery4 laccase can be effectively applied for the reduction in AFB1 in corn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Loi
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Silvana De Leonardis
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Biancamaria Ciasca
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Costantino Paciolla
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Mulè
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Miriam Haidukowski
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
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5
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Wang Y, Sun J, Zhang M, Pan K, Liu T, Zhang T, Luo X, Zhao J, Li Z. Detoxification of Fumonisins by Three Novel Transaminases with Diverse Enzymatic Characteristics Coupled with Carboxylesterase. Foods 2023; 12:foods12020416. [PMID: 36673508 PMCID: PMC9858248 DOI: 10.3390/foods12020416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin (FB) is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating feed and food, causing severe public health threat to human and animals worldwide. Until now, only several transaminases were found to reduce FB toxicity, thus, more fumonisin detoxification transaminases with excellent catalytic properties required urgent exploration for complex application conditions. Herein, through gene mining and enzymatic characterization, three novel fumonisin detoxification transaminases-FumTSTA, FumUPTA, FumPHTA-were identified, sharing only 61-74% sequence identity with reported fumonisin detoxification transaminases. Moreover, the recombinant proteins shared diverse pH reaction ranges, good pH stability and thermostability, and the recombinant protein yields were also improved by condition optimum. Furthermore, the final products were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. This study provides ideal candidates for fumonisin detoxification and meets diverse required demands in food and feed industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Junhao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Mengwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Kungang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Tianhui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Tongcun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Xuegang Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Junqi Zhao
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan 250200, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (Z.L.)
| | - Zhongyuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (Z.L.)
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6
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Pascale M, Logrieco AF, Lippolis V, De Girolamo A, Cervellieri S, Lattanzio VMT, Ciasca B, Vega A, Reichel M, Graeber M, Slettengren K. Industrial-Scale Cleaning Solutions for the Reduction of Fusarium Toxins in Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110728. [PMID: 36355978 PMCID: PMC9695466 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Grain cleaning is the most effective non-destructive post-harvest mitigation strategy to reduce high levels of mycotoxins on account of the removal of mold-infected grains and grain fractions with high mycotoxin content. In this study, the reduction in the concentration of some co-occurring Fusarium toxins in maize, namely deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins B1 and B2 (FBs), was evaluated at an industrial-scale level by mechanical removal (sieving and density separation) of dust, coarse, small, broken, shriveled and low-density kernels and/or optical sorting of defected kernels. Samples were dynamically collected according to the Commission Regulation No. 401/2006 along the entire process line. Mycotoxin analyses of water-slurry aggregate samples were performed by validated LC methods. Depending on the contamination levels in raw incoming maize, the overall reduction rates ranged from 36 to 67% for DON, from 67 to 87% for ZEA and from 27 to 67% for FBs. High levels of DON, ZEA and FBs were found in all rejected fractions with values, respectively, up to 3030%, 1510% and 2680%, compared to their content in uncleaned maize. Results showed that grain cleaning equipment based on mechanical and or optical sorting technologies can provide a significant reduction in Fusarium toxin contamination in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelangelo Pascale
- Institute of Food Sciences (ISA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 83100 Avellino, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (K.S.)
| | - Antonio F. Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Lippolis
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Annalisa De Girolamo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Salvatore Cervellieri
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Veronica M. T. Lattanzio
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Biancamaria Ciasca
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy
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Abou Dib A, Assaf JC, El Khoury A, El Khatib S, Koubaa M, Louka N. Single, Subsequent, or Simultaneous Treatments to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Solid Foods and Feeds: A Critical Review. Foods 2022; 11:3304. [PMCID: PMC9601460 DOI: 10.3390/foods11203304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds jeopardize the public health of humans and animals and cause food security issues. The inefficacy of most preventive measures to control the production of fungi in foods and feeds during the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages incited interest in the mitigation of these mycotoxins that can be conducted by the application of various chemical, physical, and/or biological treatments. These treatments are implemented separately or through a combination of two or more treatments simultaneously or subsequently. The reduction rates of the methods differ greatly, as do their effect on the organoleptic attributes, nutritional quality, and the environment. This critical review aims at summarizing the latest studies related to the mitigation of mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds. It discusses and evaluates the single and combined mycotoxin reduction treatments, compares their efficiency, elaborates on their advantages and disadvantages, and sheds light on the treated foods or feeds, as well as on their environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaa Abou Dib
- Centre d’Analyses et de Recherche (CAR), Unité de Recherche Technologies et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Faculté des Sciences, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Mar Roukos, Matn 1104-2020, Lebanon
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, Facuty of Arts and Sciences, Bekaa Campus, Lebanese International University, Khiyara, Bekaa 1108, Lebanon
| | - Jean Claude Assaf
- Centre d’Analyses et de Recherche (CAR), Unité de Recherche Technologies et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Faculté des Sciences, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Mar Roukos, Matn 1104-2020, Lebanon
| | - André El Khoury
- Centre d’Analyses et de Recherche (CAR), Unité de Recherche Technologies et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Faculté des Sciences, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Mar Roukos, Matn 1104-2020, Lebanon
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +9611421389
| | - Sami El Khatib
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, Facuty of Arts and Sciences, Bekaa Campus, Lebanese International University, Khiyara, Bekaa 1108, Lebanon
| | - Mohamed Koubaa
- TIMR (Integrated Transformations of Renewable Matter), Centre de Recherche Royallieu, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, ESCOM—CS 60319, CEDEX, 60203 Compiègne, France
| | - Nicolas Louka
- Centre d’Analyses et de Recherche (CAR), Unité de Recherche Technologies et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Faculté des Sciences, Campus des Sciences et Technologies, Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Mar Roukos, Matn 1104-2020, Lebanon
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8
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Yang D, Ye Y, Sun J, Wang JS, Huang C, Sun X. Occurrence, transformation, and toxicity of fumonisins and their covert products during food processing. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3660-3673. [PMID: 36239314 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2134290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins comprise structurally related metabolites mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Contamination with fumonisins causes incalculable damage to the economy and poses a great risk to animal and human health. Fumonisins and their covert products are found in cereals and cereal products. Food processing significantly affects the degradation of toxins and the formation of covert toxins. However, studies on fumonisins and their covert mycotoxins remain inadequate. This review aims to summarize changes in fumonisins and the generation of covert fumonisins during processing. It also investigates the toxicity and determination methods of fumonisins and covert fumonisins, and elucidates the factors affecting fumonisins and their covert forms during processing. In addition to the metabolic production by plants and fungi, covert fumonisins are mainly produced by covalent or noncovalent binding, complexation, or physical entrapment of fumonisins with other substances. The toxicity of covert fumonisins is similar to that of free fumonisins and is a non-negligible hazard. Covert fumonisins are commonly found in food matrices, and methods to analyze them have yet to be improved. Food processing significantly affects the conversion of fumonisins to their covert toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diaodiao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jia-Sheng Wang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Caihong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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Xu R, Kiarie EG, Yiannikouris A, Sun L, Karrow NA. Nutritional impact of mycotoxins in food animal production and strategies for mitigation. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2022; 13:69. [PMID: 35672806 PMCID: PMC9175326 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-022-00714-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal performance by disrupting nutrient digestion, absorption, metabolism, and animal physiology. Thus, mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds represents a significant issue to the livestock industry and is a health threat to food animals. Since prevention of mycotoxin formation is difficult to undertake to avoid contamination, mitigation strategies are needed. This review explores how the mycotoxins aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A impose nutritional and metabolic effects on food animals and summarizes mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxicity.
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Hoffmans Y, Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C, van der Fels-Klerx H. Factors during Production of Cereal-Derived Feed That Influence Mycotoxin Contents. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050301. [PMID: 35622548 PMCID: PMC9143035 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally present in cereal-based feed materials; however, due to adverse effects on animal health, their presence in derived animal feed should be minimized. A systematic literature search was conducted to obtain an overview of all factors from harvest onwards influencing the presence and concentration of mycotoxins in cereal-based feeds. The feed production processes covered included the harvest time, post-harvest practices (drying, cleaning, storage), and processing (milling, mixing with mycotoxin binders, extrusion cooking, ensiling). Delayed harvest supports the production of multiple mycotoxins. The way feed materials are dried after harvest influences the concentration of mycotoxins therein. Applying fungicides on the feed materials after harvest as well as cleaning and sorting can lower the concentration of mycotoxins. During milling, mycotoxins might be redistributed in cereal feed materials and fractions thereof. It is important to know which parts of the cereals are used for feed production and whether or not mycotoxins predominantly accumulate in these fractions. For feed production, mostly the milling fractions with outer parts of cereals, such as bran and shorts, are used, in which mycotoxins concentrate during processing. Wet-milling of grains can lower the mycotoxin content in these parts of the grain. However, this is typically accompanied by translocation of mycotoxins to the liquid fractions, which might be added to by-products used as feed. Mycotoxin binders can be added during mixing of feed materials. Although binders do not remove mycotoxins from the feed, the mycotoxins become less bioavailable to the animal and, in the case of food-producing animals, to the consumer, lowering the adverse effects of mycotoxins. The effect of extruding cereal feed materials is dependent on several factors, but in principle, mycotoxin contents are decreased after extrusion cooking. The results on ensiling are not uniform; however, most of the data show that mycotoxin production is supported during ensiling when oxygen can enter this process. Overall, the results of the literature review suggest that factors preventing mycotoxin production have greater impact than factors lowering the mycotoxin contents already present in feed materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette Hoffmans
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Sara Schaarschmidt
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany; (S.S.); (C.F.-H.)
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany; (S.S.); (C.F.-H.)
| | - H.J. van der Fels-Klerx
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-317-481963
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11
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Toxic Mechanism and Biological Detoxification of Fumonisins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030182. [PMID: 35324679 PMCID: PMC8954241 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Food safety is related to the national economy and people’s livelihood. Fumonisins are widely found in animal feed, feed raw materials, and human food. This can not only cause economic losses in animal husbandry but can also have carcinogenicity or teratogenicity and can be left in animal meat, eggs, and milk which may enter the human body and pose a serious threat to human health. Although there are many strategies to prevent fumonisins from entering the food chain, the traditional physical and chemical methods of mycotoxin removal have some disadvantages, such as an unstable effect, large nutrient loss, impact on the palatability of feed, and difficulty in mass production. As a safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly detoxification technology, biological detoxification attracts more and more attention from researchers and is gradually becoming an accepted technique. This work summarizes the toxic mechanism of fumonisins and highlights the advances of fumonisins in the detoxification of biological antioxidants, antagonistic microorganisms, and degradation mechanisms. Finally, the future challenges and focus of the biological control and degradation of fumonisins are discussed.
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Alberts JF, Davids I, Moll WD, Schatzmayr G, Burger HM, Shephard GS, Gelderblom WC. Enzymatic detoxification of the fumonisin mycotoxins during dry milling of maize. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Scarpino V, Vanara F, Sulyok M, Krska R, Blandino M. Fate of regulated, masked, emerging mycotoxins and secondary fungal metabolites during different large-scale maize dry-milling processes. Food Res Int 2021; 140:109861. [PMID: 33648179 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The use of maize in the food chain could be mainly limited due to its contamination by mycotoxins. As scarce information is available, the current study is aimed at collecting new data on the co-occurrence and the fate of the most frequent masked, modified and emerging mycotoxins and other second fungal metabolites in maize food products and by-products. Three maize lots, obtained in different growing seasons, were processed using two different degermination processes, a dry-degermination system or a tempering-degermination one, in order to compare the interaction between mycotoxins and the dry-milling management system. Whole grain before and after cleaning, and all the products and the by-products were sampled twice for each lot and were subjected to a multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS analysis. More than 30 mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites, including masked or modified forms, co-occurred in all the maize milling fractions. Grain cleaning reduced all the detected fungal metabolites by 1.2-2 times, compared to the grain before cleaning. Animal feed flour showed the highest content of almost all the mycotoxins and fungal metabolites, with a consequent negative impact on animal health. Considering that for all the mycotoxins and fungal metabolites an inverse relationship with particle size was observed, flaking grits represented the healthiest maize products with the least contamination level, while the abatement was always lower for maize flour. Furthermore, the metabolites were variably redistributed in the maize fractions. The total aflatoxins, kojic acid, deoxynivalenol and its modified form, culmorin, and its associated forms, butenolide, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, fusarinolic acid and, in some cases, zearalenone and its modified forms, and fusarin C were found to be concentrated significantly in the germ. Some of them also had a greater permanence in the maize food fractions and a weaker decontamination, both of which point to a higher risk of exposure for the end consumers. The co-occurrence of a such a high number of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites and their different fates during the dry-milling process have never been described before.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Scarpino
- University of Turin, Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy
| | - Francesca Vanara
- University of Turin, Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy
| | - Michael Sulyok
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Massimo Blandino
- University of Turin, Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy.
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Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C. The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 20:91-148. [PMID: 33443798 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal metabolites that are associated with health hazards and are widespread in cereals including maize. The most common mycotoxins in maize that occur at relatively high levels are fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone, and aflatoxins; furthermore, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A are frequently present in maize. For these toxins, maximum levels are laid down in the European Union (EU) for maize raw materials and maize-based foods. The current review article gives a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins (including mycotoxins not regulated by EU law) and their fate during secondary processing of maize, based on the data published in the scientific literature. Furthermore, potential compliance with the EU maximum levels is discussed where appropriate. In general, secondary processing can impact mycotoxins in various ways. Besides changes in mycotoxin levels due to fractionation, dilution, and/or concentration, mycotoxins can be affected in their chemical structure (causing degradation or modification) or be released from or bound to matrix components. In the current review, a special focus is set on the effect on mycotoxins caused by different heat treatments, namely, baking, roasting, frying, (pressure) cooking, and extrusion cooking. Production processes involving multiple heat treatments are exemplified with the cornflakes production. For that, potential compliance with FB maximum levels was assessed. Moreover, effects of fermentation of maize matrices and production of maize germ oil are covered by this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Schaarschmidt
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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Bresciani A, Giordano D, Vanara F, Blandino M, Marti A. The effect of the amylose content and milling fractions on the physico-chemical features of co-extruded snacks from corn. Food Chem 2020; 343:128503. [PMID: 33243562 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The suitability of corn fractions (break meal: 250-500 µm; flour: < 150 µm) from hybrids with different amylose contents (conventional: 18%; high-amylose: 42%; waxy: 2%) and their blends, to produce co-extruded snacks was assessed. Corn flour exhibited a higher content in total soluble phenolic acids (+34%) than break meal. The high-amylose hybrid maintained a higher antioxidant capacity and phenolic acid content (+52% for soluble and + 54% for cell-wall bound phenolic acids), even after extrusion, than the conventional one. Because of its gelatinization properties (high pasting and peak temperatures; low maximum viscosity), the high-amylose hybrid produced co-extruded snacks characterized by low section areas and large inner areas. The blends led to snacks whose features (sections and inner areas, porosity and hardness) did not follow a linear trend with the amylose content, suggesting the need for further studies to better understand the starch interactions that take place among the various hybrids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Bresciani
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G. Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Debora Giordano
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Francesca Vanara
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Massimo Blandino
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), Università degli Studi di Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, TO, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Marti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G. Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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Physical and chemical parameters, Fusarium verticillioides growth and fumonisin production in kernels of nine maize genotypes. J Cereal Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2020.103128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Rybchynskyi R, Sots S, Kustov I. FEATURES OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CORN GRITS AT THE DIFFERENT DEGERMINATOR MODES IN THE DENT CORN PROCESSING. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.15673/fst.v14i2.1729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This article is devoted to the study of transforming the chemical composition of corn grits at the different operation modes of degerminator in the dent corn processing. The experiment was conducted in industrial conditions on Skvyrskyi grain processing factory Ltd. during the processing of kernels using the degerminator of Bühler company. The operation modes of the degerminator were changed for 5 times during the experiment by means of the regulation of the gap between the shell and the drum. The study has shown that in terms of the low operation mode of the degerminator (the passage of the sieve Ø3.0 – 34.9%) there is a high output of fine fractions of the intermediate products, but the quality level of the overtail product of the degerminator is the best by fat content 1.81% and crude fiber content 6.72%, which indicates a minimal germ and bran content. In case of the increase of the gap (the passage of the sieve Ø3.0 – 12.4%), the output of fine fractions of the intermediate products, as well as the output of feed germ meal, declines, at the same time the overtail product has the high number of remnants of the germ and bran after the degerminator, as the fat content increases to 2.80% and crude fiber content increases to 9.82%. It was also found that the change of degerminator modes (increase in the passage of the sieve Ø 3.0 from 34.9 to 12.4%) leads to a decrease in the starch content from 79.36 to 75.43%, the protein content does not change. In order to provide the high quality of corn groats products, it is advisable to control the quality of the overtail products of the degerminator by the fat content. The fat content in the overtail product must not be higher than 2.2% – during the production of long shelf life products, and not higher than 2.5% – during the production of common corn products. For prompt regulation of the degerminator operation modes, it was offered to use release indicator, which can be determined by means of sieving of the 100 g of the overtail products using the Ø 3.0 sieve. In order to provide the fat content in groats within 0.6–0.8% and 0.8–1.0%, the general extraction of the fine products (release indicator) with the Ø 3.0 sieve use in the dent corn processing should vary within the range of 27–32% and 22–27%, respectively.
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Pascale M, Logrieco AF, Graeber M, Hirschberger M, Reichel M, Lippolis V, De Girolamo A, Lattanzio VMT, Slettengren K. Aflatoxin Reduction in Maize by Industrial-Scale Cleaning Solutions. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E331. [PMID: 32429556 PMCID: PMC7290569 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Different batches of biomass/feed quality maize contaminated by aflatoxins were processed at the industrial scale (a continuous process and separate discontinuous steps) to evaluate the effect of different cleaning solutions on toxin reduction. The investigated cleaning solutions included: (i) mechanical size separation of coarse, small and broken kernels, (ii) removal of dust/fine particles through an aspiration channel, (iii) separation of kernels based on gravity and (iv) optical sorting of spatial and spectral kernel defects. Depending on the sampled fraction, dynamic or static sampling was performed according to the Commission Regulation No. 401/2006 along the entire cleaning process lines. Aflatoxin analyses of the water-slurry aggregate samples were performed according to the AOAC Official Method No. 2005.008 based on high-performance liquid chromatography and immunoaffinity column cleanup of the extracts. A significant reduction in aflatoxin content in the cleaned products, ranging from 65% to 84% with respect to the uncleaned products, was observed when continuous cleaning lines were used. Additionally, an overall aflatoxin reduction from 55% to 94% was obtained by combining results from separate cleaning steps. High levels of aflatoxins (up to 490 µg/kg) were found in the rejected fractions, with the highest levels in dust and in the rejected fractions from the aspirator and optical sorting. This study shows that a cleaning line combining both mechanical and optical sorting technologies provides an efficient solution for reducing aflatoxin contamination in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelangelo Pascale
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.F.L.); (V.L.); (A.D.G.); (V.M.T.L.)
| | - Antonio F. Logrieco
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.F.L.); (V.L.); (A.D.G.); (V.M.T.L.)
| | | | | | | | - Vincenzo Lippolis
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.F.L.); (V.L.); (A.D.G.); (V.M.T.L.)
| | - Annalisa De Girolamo
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.F.L.); (V.L.); (A.D.G.); (V.M.T.L.)
| | - Veronica M. T. Lattanzio
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.F.L.); (V.L.); (A.D.G.); (V.M.T.L.)
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Čolović R, Puvača N, Cheli F, Avantaggiato G, Greco D, Đuragić O, Kos J, Pinotti L. Decontamination of Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feedstuffs and Compound Feed. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E617. [PMID: 31731462 PMCID: PMC6891401 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are known worldwide as fungus-produced toxins that adulterate a wide heterogeneity of raw feed ingredients and final products. Consumption of mycotoxins-contaminated feed causes a plethora of harmful responses from acute toxicity to many persistent health disorders with lethal outcomes; such as mycotoxicosis when ingested by animals. Therefore, the main task for feed producers is to minimize the concentration of mycotoxin by applying different strategies aimed at minimizing the risk of mycotoxin effects on animals and human health. Once mycotoxins enter the production chain it is hard to eliminate or inactivate them. This paper examines the most recent findings on different processes and strategies for the reduction of toxicity of mycotoxins in animals. The review gives detailed information about the decontamination approaches to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of feedstuffs and compound feed, which could be implemented in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radmilo Čolović
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (O.Đ.); (J.K.)
| | - Nikola Puvača
- Department of Engineering Management in Biotechnology, Faculty of Economics and Engineering Management in Novi Sad, University Business Academy in Novi Sad, Cvećarska, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Federica Cheli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, Via Trentacoste, 20134 Milan, Italy;
| | - Giuseppina Avantaggiato
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola, 70126 Bari, Italy; (G.A.); (D.G.)
| | - Donato Greco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola, 70126 Bari, Italy; (G.A.); (D.G.)
| | - Olivera Đuragić
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (O.Đ.); (J.K.)
| | - Jovana Kos
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (O.Đ.); (J.K.)
| | - Luciano Pinotti
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, Via Trentacoste, 20134 Milan, Italy;
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Bordini JG, Ono MA, Garcia GT, Vizoni É, Amador IR, Hirozawa MT, Ono EYS. Transgenic versus conventional corn: fate of fumonisins during industrial dry milling. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:169-176. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00343-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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