Effects of aflatoxin and fumonisin on gene expression of growth factors and inflammation-related genes in a human hepatocyte cell line

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are mycotoxins widely distributed in maize and maized-based products, often occurring together. The implications of co-exposure to aflatoxin and fumonsin for human health are numerous, but a particular concern is the potential of FB1 to modulate AFB1 hepatotoxicity. This study evaluated the toxicity of these mycotoxins, alone or combined, in a human non-tumorigenic liver cell line, HHL-16 cells, and assessed the effects of AFB1 and FB1 on expression of genes involved in immune and growth factor pathways. The results demonstrated that in HHL-16 cells, both AFB1 and FB1 had dose-dependent and time-dependent toxicity, and the combination of them showed a synergistic toxicity in the cells. Moreover, AFB1 caused upregulation of IL6, CCL20, and BMP2, and downregulation of NDP. In combination of AFB1 with FB1, gene expression levels of IL6 and BMP2 were significantly higher compared to individual FB1 treatment, and had a tendency to be higher than individual AFB1 treatment. This study shows that FB1 may increase the hepatoxicity of AFB1 through increasing the inflammatory response and disrupting cell growth pathways.

Endotoxin Translocation Is Increased in Broiler Chickens Fed a Fusarium Mycotoxin-Contaminated Diet

Broiler chickens in livestock production face numerous challenges that can impact their health and welfare, including mycotoxin contamination and heat stress. In this study, we aimed to investigate the combined effects of two mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FBs), along with short-term heat stress conditions, on broiler gut health and endotoxin translocation. An experiment was conducted to assess the impacts of mycotoxin exposure on broilers, focusing on intestinal endotoxin activity, gene expression related to gut barrier function and inflammation, and the plasma concentration of the endotoxin marker 3-OH C14:0 either at thermoneutral conditions or short-term heat stress conditions. Independently of heat stress, broilers fed DON-contaminated diets exhibited reduced body weight gain during the starter phase (Day 1-12) compared to the control group, while broilers fed FB-contaminated diets experienced decreased body weight gain throughout the entire trial period (Day 1-24). Furthermore, under thermoneutral conditions, broilers fed DON-contaminated diets showed an increase in 3-OH C14:0 concentration in the plasma. Moreover, under heat stress conditions, the expression of genes related to gut barrier function (Claudin 5, Zonulin 1 and 2) and inflammation (Toll-like receptor 4, Interleukin-1 beta, Interleukin-6) was significantly affected by diets contaminated with mycotoxins, depending on the gut segment. This effect was particularly prominent in broilers fed diets contaminated with FBs. Notably, the plasma concentration of 3-OH C14:0 increased in broilers exposed to both DON- and FB-contaminated diets under heat stress conditions. These findings shed light on the intricate interactions between mycotoxins, heat stress, gut health, and endotoxin translocation in broiler chickens, highlighting the importance of understanding these interactions for the development of effective management strategies in livestock production to enhance broiler health and welfare.

Effects of a Curcumin/Silymarin/Yeast-Based Mycotoxin Detoxifier on Redox Status and Growth Performance of Weaned Piglets under Field Conditions

The aim of this in vivo study was to investigate the effects of a novel mycotoxin detoxifier whose formulation includes clay (bentonite and sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin and silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast products) on the health, performance and redox status of weaned piglets under the dietary challenge of fumonisins (FUMs). The study was conducted in duplicate in the course of two independent trials on two different farms. One hundred and fifty (150) weaned piglets per trial farm were allocated into two separate groups: (a) T1 (control group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed and (b) T2 (experimental group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed with the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent from the day of weaning (28 days) until 70 days of age. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs), protein carbonyls (CARBs) and the overall antioxidant capacity (TAC) were assessed in plasma as indicators of redox status at 45 and 70 days of age. Furthermore, mortality and performance parameters were recorded at 28, 45 and 70 days of age, while histopathological examination was performed at the end of the trial period (day 70). The results of the present study reveal the beneficial effects of supplementing a novel mycotoxin detoxifier in the diets of weaners, including improved redox status, potential hepatoprotective properties and enhanced growth performance.

Apocynin exerts neuroprotective effects in fumonisin b1-induced neurotoxicity via attenuation of oxidative stress and apoptosis in an animal model

The Fusarium verticillioides produces a mycotoxin, that is, fumonisin b1 (Fb1), which commonly infects corn and agricultural commodities. The Fb1 showed hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and carcinogenicity in animals. Hence, the present investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of apocynin (AP) on Fb1-induced neurotoxic effects and its mechanism in the mice model and cell line. The male Balb/c mice, with the 6.75 mg/kg bwt of Fb1 were injected subcutaneously for 5 days to induce neurotoxicity. A significant elevation of serotonin (5-HT) was observed in mice treated with Fb1 in the whole brain showing biogenic amines may reflect Fb1 neurotoxicity, but the negatively regulated mechanisms were attenuated by the pretreatment of AP. In addition, AP pretreatment normalized apoptotic changes in histology and immunohistochemistry studies. In Western blotting studies, apoptotic genes were upregulated and oxidative stress genes were downregulated due to Fb1 treatment; while treating with AP, these gene expressions were rectified. Further cell cytotoxicity was investigated by MTT and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays in SH-SY5Y cell line. MTT and LDH assays indicated the IC50 value to be 150 µM of Fb1, which was protected by 100 µg of AP. The electron microscopy evaluated the Fb1-induced apoptotic conditions and its cell morphology recovery by AP. These results suggest that nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species is the primary upstream signal leading to increased Fb1-mediated neurotoxicity in mice. The use of the antioxidant AP reversed the toxin-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis by its antioxidant potency.

Resveratrol alleviates fumonisin-induced intestinal cytotoxicity by modulating apoptosis, tight junction, and inflammation in IPEC-J2 porcine intestinal epithelial cells

Fumonisins are common contaminants in the global food and environment, pose a variety of health risks to humans and animals. However, the method of mitigating fumonisin toxicity is still unclear. Resveratrol is a natural compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the protective effect of resveratrol against fumonisin-induced intestinal toxicity was investigated by the porcine intestinal epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2). The cells were treated with 0-40 μM fumonisin for 24 or 48 h with or without the 24 h resveratrol (15 μM) pretreatment. The data showed that resveratrol could alleviate the fumonisin B1 (FB1)-induced decrease in cell viability and amplify in membrane permeability. At the same time, it could reduce the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species and increase the expression ranges of Nrf2 and downstream genes (SOD1 and NQO-1), thereby counteracting FB1-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, resveratrol was able to reduce the expression levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), increase the expression levels of tight junction proteins (Claudin-1, Occludin, and ZO-1), and the integrity of the IPEC-J2 monolayer. Our data also showed that resveratrol could attenuate the toxicity of the co-occurrence of three fumonisins. It is implied that resveratrol represents a promising protective approach for fumonisin, even other mycotoxins in the future. This provided a new strategy for further blocking and controlling the toxicity of fumonisin, subsequently avoiding adverse effects on the human and animal health.

Development of a fumonisin-sensitive Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicator strain and utilization for activity testing of candidate detoxification genes

IMPORTANCE

Fumonisins can cause diseases in animals and humans consuming Fusarium-contaminated food or feed. The search for microbes capable of fumonisin degradation, or for enzymes that can detoxify fumonisins, currently relies primarily on chemical detection methods. Our constructed fumonisin B1-sensitive yeast strain can be used to phenotypically detect detoxification activity and should be useful in screening for novel fumonisin resistance genes and to elucidate fumonisin metabolism and resistance mechanisms in fungi and plants, and thereby, in the long term, help to mitigate the threat of fumonisins in feed and food.

Comparison Study of Two Fumonisin-Degrading Enzymes for Detoxification in Piglets

Fumonisins (FBs), particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2) produced mainly by Fusarium verticillioide and Fusarium proliferatum, are common contaminants in animal feed and pose a serious threat to both animal and human health. The use of microbial enzymes to efficiently and specifically convert fumonisins into non-toxic or low-toxic metabolites has emerged as the most promising approach. However, most of the available enzymes have only been evaluated in vitro and lack systematic evaluation in vivo. In this study, the detoxification efficacy of two carboxylesterases, FumD (FUMzyme®) and FumDSB, was evaluated comparatively in piglets. The results show that feeding piglets 4.4 mg/kg FBs-contaminated diets for 32 days did not significantly affect the average daily gain, organ indices, and immunoglobulins of the piglets. However, a significant reduction (21.2%) in anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-4 was observed in the FBs group, and supplementation with FUMzyme® and FumDSB significantly increased interleukin-4 by 62.1% and 28.0%, respectively. In addition, FBs-contaminated diets resulted in a 3-fold increase in the serum sphinganine/sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio, which is a specific biomarker that has been used to accurately reflect fumonisin levels. The serum Sa/So ratio was significantly reduced by 48.8% after the addition of FUMzyme®, and was insignificantly reduced by 8.2% in the FumDSB group. These results suggested that FUMzyme was more effective than FumDSB in mitigating FBs toxicity in piglets by down-regulating the Sa/So ratio.

Targeted sphingolipidomics indicates increased C22-C24:16 ratios of virtually all assayed classes in liver, kidney, and plasma of fumonisin-fed chickens

The biological properties of sphinganine-(d18:0)-, sphingosine-(d18:1)-, deoxysphinganine-(m18: 0)-, deoxysphingosine-(m18:1)-, deoxymethylsphinganine-(m17:0)-, deoxymethylsphingosine-(m17:1)-, sphingadienine-(d18:2)-, and phytosphingosine-(t18:0)-sphingolipids have been reported to vary, but little is known about the effects of fumonisins, which are mycotoxins that inhibit ceramide synthase, on sphingolipids other than those containing d18:0 and d18:1. Thirty chickens divided into three groups received a control diet or a diet containing 14.6 mg FB1 + FB2/kg for 14 and 21 days. No effects on health or performance were observed, while the effects on sphingoid bases, ceramides, sphingomyelins, and glycosylceramides in liver, kidney, and plasma varied. The t18:0 forms were generally unaffected by fumonisins, while numerous effects were found for m18:0, m18:1, d18:2, and the corresponding ceramides, and these effects appeared to be similar to those observed for d18:0-, and d18:1-ceramides. Partial least square discriminant analysis showed that d18:1- and d18:0-sphingolipids are important variables for explaining the partitioning of chickens into different groups according to fumonisins feeding, while m17:1-, m18:0-, m18:1-, d18:2-, and t18:0-sphingolipids are not. Interestingly, the C22-C24:C16 ratios measured for each class of sphingolipid increased in fumonisin-fed chickens in the three assayed matrices, whereas the total amounts of the sphingolipid classes varied. The potential use of C22-C24:C16 ratios as biomarkers requires further study.

Cell cycle and enzymatic activity alterations induced by ROS production in human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y exposed to Fumonisin B1, Ochratoxin A and their combination

The presence of mycotoxins such as Fumonisin B1(FB1) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) in food and feed has become a threat to human and animal health since they can produce several afflictions. Different mechanisms of action by which they exercise their cytotoxic activity have been attributed to them, including the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). For this reason, a measurement of the production of ROS species, and an evaluation of the intrinsic cell enzymatic antioxidant activity, including glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione transferase (GTS), and catalase (CAT) together with a cytotoxicity and cell cycle assay have been performed in undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells exposed to FB1, OTA and [FB1 + OTA] after 24 h and 48 h. FB1 and OTA. Monitoring of intracellular ROS production was carried out by the H2-DCFDA probe; while spectrometry analysis of absorbances was used for measuring GPx, GST and CAT activity. Finally, cell proliferation and cell cycle distribution were studied by flow cytometry. When cells were treated with OTA, an increase in GPx and GST activity was observed compared to FB1 and [FB1 + OTA]; conversely, a decrease in CAT activity was observed when cells were exposed to OTA coinciding with the results observed for ROS measurement. Regarding the cell cycle, when cells were exposed to OTA, a decrease in G0/G1 was detected, revealing an arrest of cell division for SH-SY5Y cells at the concentrations studied.

Involvement of Autophagy and Oxidative Stress-Mediated DNA Hypomethylation in Transgenerational Nephrotoxicity Induced in Rats by the Mycotoxin Fumonisin B1

Fumonisin B1 (FB1), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium verticillioides, is one of the most common pollutants in natural foods and agricultural crops. It can cause chronic and severe health issues in humans and animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the transgenerational effects of FB1 exposure on the structure and function of the kidneys in offspring. Virgin female Wistar rats were randomly divided into three groups: group one (control) received sterile water, and groups two and three were intragastrically administered low (20 mg/kg) and high (50 mg/kg) doses of FB1, respectively, from day 6 of pregnancy until delivery. Our results showed that exposure to either dose of FB1 caused histopathological changes, such as atrophy, hypercellularity, hemorrhage, calcification, and a decrease in the glomerular diameter, in both the first and second generations. The levels of the antioxidant markers glutathione, glutathione S-transferase, and catalase significantly decreased, while malondialdehyde levels increased. Moreover, autophagy was induced, as immunofluorescence analysis revealed that LC-3 protein expression was significantly increased in both generations after exposure to either dose of FB1. However, a significant decrease in methyltransferase (DNMT3) protein expression was observed in the first generation in both treatment groups (20 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg), indicating a decrease in DNA methylation as a result of early-life exposure to FB1. Interestingly, global hypomethylation was also observed in the second generation in both treatment groups despite the fact that the mothers of these rats were not exposed to FB1. Thus, early-life exposure to FB1 induced nephrotoxicity in offspring of the first and second generations. The mechanisms of action underlying this transgenerational effect may include oxidative stress, autophagy, and DNA hypomethylation.

Current Knowledge of Individual and Combined Toxicities of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 In Vitro

Mycotoxins are considered the most threating natural contaminants in food. Among these mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are the most prominent fungal metabolites that represent high food safety risks, due to their widespread co-occurrence in several food commodities, and their profound toxic effects on humans. Considering the ethical and more humane animal research, the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) principle has been promoted in the last few years. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the research studies conducted up to date on the toxicological effects that AFB1 and FB1 can induce on human health, through the examination of a selected number of in vitro studies. Although the impact of both toxins, as well as their combination, were investigated in different cell lines, the majority of the work was carried out in hepatic cell lines, especially HepG2, owing to the contaminants' liver toxicity. In all the reviewed studies, AFB1 and FB1 could invoke, after short-term exposure, cell apoptosis, by inducing several pathways (oxidative stress, the mitochondrial pathway, ER stress, the Fas/FasL signaling pathway, and the TNF-α signal pathway). Among these pathways, mitochondria are the primary target of both toxins. The interaction of AFB1 and FB1, whether additive, synergistic, or antagonistic, depends to great extent on FB1/AFB1 ratio. However, it is generally manifested synergistically, via the induction of oxidative stress and mitochondria dysfunction, through the expression of the Bcl-2 family and p53 proteins. Therefore, AFB1 and FB1 mixture may enhance more in vitro toxic effects, and carry a higher significant risk factor, than the individual presence of each toxin.

Longan Polysaccharides with Covalent Selenylation Combat the Fumonisin B1-Induced Cell Toxicity and Barrier Disruption in Intestinal Epithelial (IEC-6) Cells

In this study, the soluble, but non-digestible, longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) polysaccharides (LP) were extracted from dried longan fruits and then chemically selenylated to produce two selenylated products, namely SeLP1 and SeLP2, with different selenylation extents. The aim was to investigate their protective effects on rat intestinal epithelial (IEC-6) cells exposed to the food toxin fumonisin B1 (FB1). LP only contained total Se content of less than 0.01 g/kg, while SeLP1 and SeLP2 were measured with respective total Se content of up to 1.46 and 4.79 g/kg. The cell viability results showed that these two selenylated products were more efficient than LP in the IEC-6 cells in alleviating FB1-induced cell toxicity, suppressing lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, and decreasing the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). These two selenylated products were also more effective than LP in combating FB1-induced barrier disruption via increasing the transepithelial electric resistance (TEER), reducing the paracellular permeability, decreasing the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) loss, and maintaining cell barrier integrity by upregulating the tight-junction-related genes and proteins. FB1 caused cell oxidative stress and barrier dysfunction by activating the MAPK and mitochondrial apoptosis signaling pathways, while SeLP1 and SeLP2 could regulate the tMAPK- and apoptosis-related proteins to suppress the FB1-mediated activation of the two pathways. Overall, SeLP2 was observed to be more active than SeLP1 in the IEC-6 cells. In conclusion, the chemical selenylation of LP caused an activity enhancement to ameliorate the FB1-induced cell cytotoxicity and intestinal barrier disruption. Meanwhile, the increased selenylation of LP would endow the selenylated product SeLP2 with more activity.

A preliminary study on the pathology and molecular mechanism of fumonisin B1 nephrotoxicity in young quails

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a widely present mycotoxin that accumulates in biological systems and poses a health risk to animals. However, few studies have reported the molecular mechanism by which FB1 induces nephrotoxicity. The aim of this study was to assess the extent of nephrotoxicity during FB1 exposure and the possible molecular mechanisms behind it. Therefore, 180 young quails were equally divided into two groups. The control group was fed typical quail food, while the experimental group was fed quail food containing 30 mg·kg-1 FB1. Various parameters were assessed, which included histopathological, ultrastructural changes, levels of biochemical parameters, oxidative indicators, inflammatory factors, possible target organelles mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-related factors, nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXR) response, and cytochrome P450 system (CYP450s)-related factors in the kidneys on days 14, 28, and 42. The results showed that FB1 can induce oxidative stress through NXR response and disorder of the CYP450s system, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress, promoting the expression of inflammatory factors (including IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) and causing kidney damage. This study elucidated the possible molecular mechanism by which FB1 induces nephrotoxicity in young quails.

Efficacy of Two Commercially Available Adsorbents to Reduce the Combined Toxic Effects of Dietary Aflatoxins, Fumonisins, and Zearalenone and Their Residues in the Tissues of Weaned Pigs

Mycotoxins present a significant health concern within the animal-feed industry, with profound implications for the pig-farming sector. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of two commercial adsorbents, an organically modified clinoptilolite (OMC) and a multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA), to ameliorate the combined adverse effects of dietary aflatoxins (AFs: sum of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), fumonisins (FBs), and zearalenone (ZEN) at levels of nearly 0.5, 1.0, and 1.0 mg/kg, on a cohort of cross-bred female pigs (N = 24). Pigs were randomly allocated into six experimental groups (control, mycotoxins (MTX) alone, MTX + OMC 1.5 kg/ton, MTX + OMC 3.0 kg/ton, MTX + MMDA 1.5 kg/ton, and MTX + MMDA 3.0 kg/ton), each consisting of four individuals, and subjected to a dietary regimen spanning 42 days. The administration of combined AFs, FBs, and ZEN reduced the body-weight gain and increased the relative weight of the liver, while there was no negative influence observed on the serum biochemistry of animals. The supplementation of OMC and MMDA ameliorated the toxic effects, as observed in organ histology, and provided a notable reduction in residual AFs, FBs, and ZEN levels in the liver and kidneys. Moreover, the OMC supplementation was able to reduce the initiation of liver carcinogenesis without any hepatotoxic side effects. These findings demonstrate that the use of OMC and MMDA effectively mitigated the adverse effects of dietary AFs, FBs, and ZEN in piglets. Further studies should explore the long-term protective effects of the studied adsorbent supplementation to optimize mycotoxin management strategies in pig-farming operations.

Chronic oral exposure to low-concentration fumonisin B2 significantly exacerbates the inflammatory responses of allergies in mice via inhibition of IL-10 release by regulatory T cells in gut-associated lymphoid tissue

Contamination with fumonisins produced by Fusarium spp. is rapidly growing in both developing and developed countries. The purpose of this study was to determine whether oral exposure to fumonisin contributed to the development of allergic diseases. We initially examined the immunotoxic potential of short-term, oral administration of fumonisin B1 (FB1, 1 mg/kg) and fumonisin B2 (FB2, 1 mg/kg), both naturally occurring fumonisins, using a BALB/c mouse model of allergic contact dermatitis and Dermatophagoides farina-induced asthma. Using an NC/nga mouse model of atopic dermatitis (AD), we evaluated the adverse effects of subchronic oral exposure to low concentrations of FB2 (2 or 200 μg/kg). Finally, we explored the influence of FB2 on regulatory T cell proliferation and function in mesenteric lymph nodes after 1-week oral exposure to FB2 in BALB/c mice. Oral exposure to FB2 markedly exacerbated the symptoms of allergy, including skin thickness, histological evaluation, immunocyte proliferation, and proinflammatory cytokine production, although no change was observed following exposure to FB1. Furthermore, oral exposure to low concentrations of FB2 considerably exacerbated the AD scores, skin thickness, transepidermal water loss, histological features, and proinflammatory cytokine production. The aggravated allergic symptoms induced by oral exposure to FB2 could be attributed to the direct inhibition of IL-10 production by regulatory T cells in mesenteric lymph nodes. Our findings indicate that the recommended maximum fumonisin level should be reconsidered based on the potential for allergy development.

Effects of Aflatoxins and Fumonisins, Alone or in Combination, on Performance, Health, and Safety of Food Products of Broiler Chickens, and Mitigation Efficacy of Bentonite and Fumonisin Esterase

The current study evaluated the effects of feeding diets contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisins (FBs), or both on the performance and health of broiler chickens and the safety of their food products as well as the efficacy of bentonite and fumonisin esterase to mitigate the effects of these mycotoxins under conditions representative for sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Four hundred one-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chickens were randomly assigned to 20 treatments with either a control diet, a diet with moderate AFB1 (60 μg/kg feed) or high AFB1 (220 μg/kg feed), or FBs (17,430 μg FB1+FB2/kg feed), alone or in combination, a diet containing AFB1 (either 60 or 220 μg/kg) and/or FBs (17,430 μg FB1+FB2/kg) and bentonite or fumonisin esterase or both, or a diet with bentonite or fumonisin esterase only. The experimental diets were given to the birds from day 1 to day 35 of age, and the effects of the different treatments on production performance were assessed by feed intake (FI), body weight gain (BWG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Possible health effects were evaluated through blood biochemistry, organ weights, mortality, liver gross pathological changes, and vaccine response. Residues of aflatoxins (AFB1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2) were determined in plasma, muscle, and liver tissues using validated UHPLC-MS/MS methods. The results obtained indicated that broiler chickens fed high AFB1 alone had poor FCR when compared to a diet with both high AFB1 and FBs (p = 0.0063). Serum total protein and albumin from birds fed FBs only or in combination with moderate or high AFB1 or detoxifiers increased when compared to the control (p < 0.05). Liver gross pathological changes were more pronounced in birds fed contaminated diets when compared to birds fed the control or diets supplemented with mycotoxin detoxifiers. The relative weight of the heart was significantly higher in birds fed high AFB1 and FBs when compared to the control or high AFB1 only diets (p < 0.05), indicating interactions between the mycotoxins. Inclusion of bentonite in AFB1-contaminated diets offered a protective effect on the change in weights of the liver, heart and spleen (p < 0.05). Residues of AFB1 were detected above the limit of quantification (max: 0.12 ± 0.03 μg/kg) in liver samples only, from birds fed a diet with high AFB1 only or with FBs or the detoxifiers. Supplementing bentonite into these AFB1-contaminated diets reduced the levels of the liver AFB1 residues by up to 50%. Bentonite or fumonisin esterase, alone, did not affect the performance and health of broiler chickens. Thus, at the doses tested, both detoxifiers were safe and efficient for use as valid means of counteracting the negative effects of AFB1 and FBs as well as transfer of AFB1 to food products (liver) of broiler chickens.

Efficacy of Feed Additive Containing Bentonite and Enzymatically Hydrolyzed Yeast on Intestinal Health and Growth of Newly Weaned Pigs under Chronic Dietary Challenges of Fumonisin and Aflatoxin

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of a feed additive containing bentonite and enzymatically hydrolyzed yeast on the intestinal health and growth of newly weaned pigs under chronic dietary exposure to fumonisin and aflatoxin. Newly weaned pigs were randomly allotted to one of four possible treatments: a control diet of conventional corn; a diet of corn contaminated with fumonisin and aflatoxin; a diet of mycotoxin-contaminated corn with 0.2% of feed additive; and a diet of mycotoxin contaminated corn with 0.4% of feed additive. We observed lower average weight gain and average daily feed intake in pigs that were fed only mycotoxin-contaminated corn compared to the control group. Feed additive supplementation linearly increased both average weight gain and feed intake, as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha. In the jejunum, there was an observed decrease in immunoglobulin A and an increase in claudin-1. Additionally, feed additive supplementation increased the villus height to crypt depth ratio compared to the control. In conclusion, feed additives containing bentonite and enzymatically hydrolyzed yeast could mitigate the detrimental effects of mycotoxins on the growth performance of newly weaned pigs by improving intestinal integrity and positively modulating immune response.

Protective effects of resveratrol against fumonisin B1-induced liver toxicity in mice

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of resveratrol against fumonisin B1 (FB1)-induced liver toxicity, as, to the best of our knowledge, these effects have not been investigated yet, even though the toxic effects and mechanisms of FB1 and the antioxidative effects of resveratrol are well known. 40 BALB/c mice were divided into control, FB1, resveratrol, and FB1+resveratrol groups. Control received saline for 14 days. The FB1 group received 2.25 mg/kg FB1 every other day for 14 days. The resveratrol group received 10 mg/kg resveratrol for 14 days. The FB1+resveratrol group received 2.25 mg/kg FB1 every other day and 10 mg/kg resveratrol every day for 14 days. All administrations were peritoneal. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total sialic acid (TSA) levels were analysed in serum samples, while total antioxidant status (TAS) and total oxidant status (TOS) were measured in the liver. Additionally, the liver tissue was examined for histopathological changes. AST, ALT, and TSA were significantly higher in the FB1 group than control. Resveratrol countered FB1 effects for all parameters, including TOS and TAS. Liver histology showed FB1-induced hyperaemia, infiltrations, and megalokaryosis in some hepatocytes. No pathological findings were detected in the control, resveratrol, or FB1+resveratrol group. Our findings confirm resveratrol's protective effect against liver damage and oxidative stress caused by FB1. In addition, they suggest that increased serum TSA levels can be used as a biomarker of FB1-induced hepatotoxicity.

The natural occurrence, toxicity mechanisms and management strategies of Fumonisin B1：A review

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) contaminates various crops, causing huge losses to agriculture and livestock worldwide. This review summarizes the occurrence regularity, toxicity, toxic mechanisms and management strategies of FB1. Specifically, FB1 contamination is particularly serious in developing countries, humid and hot regions. FB1 exposure can produce different toxic effects on the nervous system, respiratory system, digestive system and reproductive system. Furthermore, FB1 can also cause systemic immunotoxicity. The mechanism of toxic effects of FB1 is to interfere with the normal pathway of sphingolipid de novo biosynthesis by acting as a competitive inhibitor of ceramide synthase. Meanwhile, the toxic products of sphingolipid metabolic disorders can cause oxidative stress and apoptosis. FB1 also often causes feed contamination by mixing with other mycotoxins, and then exerts combined toxicity. For detection, lateral flow dipstick technology and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay are widely used in the detection of FB1 in commercial feeds, while mainstream detection methods such as high performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry are widely used in the laboratory theoretical study of FB1. For purification means of FB1, some natural plant extracts (such as Zingiber officinale and Litsea Cubeba essential oil) and their active compounds have been proved to inhibit the toxic effects of FB1 and protect livestock due to their antifungal and antioxidant effects. Natural plant extract has the advantages of high efficiency, low cost and no contamination residue. This review can provide information for comprehensive understanding of FB1, and provide reference for formulating reasonable treatment and management strategies in livestock production.

Alphatoxin Nanopore Detection of Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin and Fumonisin in Aqueous Solution

Mycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by groups of filamentous fungi that colonize food crops. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) are among the most relevant agricultural mycotoxins, as they can induce various toxic processes in humans and animals. To detect AFB1, OTA and FB1 in the most varied matrices, chromatographic and immunological methods are primarily used; however, these techniques are time-consuming and expensive. In this study, we demonstrate that unitary alphatoxin nanopore can be used to detect and differentiate these mycotoxins in aqueous solution. The presence of AFB1, OTA or FB1 inside the nanopore induces reversible blockage of the ionic current flowing through the nanopore, with distinct characteristics of blockage that are unique to each of the three toxins. The process of discrimination is based on the residual current ratio calculation and analysis of the residence time of each mycotoxin inside the unitary nanopore. Using a single alphatoxin nanopore, the mycotoxins could be detected at the nanomolar level, indicating that alphatoxin nanopore is a promising molecular tool for discriminatory analysis of mycotoxins in aqueous solution.

Mycotoxin Occurrence in Feeds and Raw Materials in China: A Five-Year Investigation

Mycotoxins are ubiquitously present in feeds and raw materials and can exert toxicity on animals and humans. Therefore, mycotoxin occurrence should be monitored. We report here a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples in China from 2017 to 2021. Concentrations of aflatoxins, trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and zearalenone were determined in a total of 9392 samples collected throughout China. Regional differences and year-to-year variation of mycotoxin occurrence were also assessed in new-season corn. Generally, Fusarium mycotoxins were prevalent, while mycotoxin contamination in each feed commodity showed a distinct pattern, e.g., wheat and bran were typically affected by trichothecenes type B, peanut meals were highly susceptible to aflatoxins, and finished feeds exhibited a comparatively high prevalence of all mycotoxins. In new-season corn, trichothecenes type B and fumonisins were most prevalent, with positive rates of 84.04% and 87.16%, respectively. Regions exhibited different patterns of mycotoxin occurrence. The Anhui and Jiangsu provinces of East China exhibited a high prevalence and concentrations of aflatoxins with a positive rate and a positive average of 82.61% and 103.08 μg/kg, respectively. Central China obtained high fumonisins levels of 4707.84 μg/kg. Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone occurred more frequently in temperate regions of Northeast China, and their positive rates reached 94.99% and 55.67%, respectively. In these regions, mycotoxin concentrations in new-season corn exhibited pronounced year-to-year variations and this could be due to the unusual changes of rainfall or temperature during sensitive periods of corn growing. A large fraction of new-season corn samples contained multiple mycotoxins with two to three classes (75.42%), and the most frequently observed co-contaminants were the combination of trichothecenes type B and fumonisins (73.52%). Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone concentrations were highly positively correlated with a coefficient of 0.775. In conclusion, mycotoxins contamination and co-contamination of feeds are common. Mycotoxin contamination in new-season corn exhibited regional patterns and year-to-year variations, with climate and weather conditions as determinant factors.

Targeted Sphingolipid Analysis in Heart, Gizzard, and Breast Muscle in Chickens Reveals Possible New Target Organs of Fumonisins

Alteration of sphingolipid synthesis is a key event in fumonisins toxicity, but only limited data have been reported regarding the effects of fumonisins on the sphingolipidome. Recent studies in chickens found that the changes in sphingolipids in liver, kidney, lung, and brain differed greatly. This study aimed to determine the effects of fumonisins on sphingolipids in heart, gizzard, and breast muscle in chickens fed 20.8 mg FB1 + FB2/kg for 9 days. A significant increase in the sphinganine:sphingosine ratio due to an increase in sphinganine was observed in heart and gizzard. Dihydroceramides and ceramides increased in the hearts of chickens fed fumonisins, but decreased in the gizzard. The dihydrosphingomyelin, sphingomyelin, and glycosylceramide concentrations paralleled those of ceramides, although the effects were less pronounced. In the heart, sphingolipids with fatty acid chain lengths of 20 to 26 carbons were more affected than those with 14-16 carbons; this difference was not observed in the gizzard. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis on sphingolipids in the heart allowed chickens to be divided into two distinct groups according to their diet. The same was the case for the gizzard. Pearson coefficients of correlation among all the sphingolipids assayed revealed strong positive correlations in the hearts of chickens fed fumonisins compared to chickens fed a control diet, as well as compared to gizzard, irrespective of the diet fed. By contrast, no effect of fumonisins was observed on sphingolipids in breast muscle.

Occurrence, transformation, and toxicity of fumonisins and their covert products during food processing

Fumonisins comprise structurally related metabolites mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Contamination with fumonisins causes incalculable damage to the economy and poses a great risk to animal and human health. Fumonisins and their covert products are found in cereals and cereal products. Food processing significantly affects the degradation of toxins and the formation of covert toxins. However, studies on fumonisins and their covert mycotoxins remain inadequate. This review aims to summarize changes in fumonisins and the generation of covert fumonisins during processing. It also investigates the toxicity and determination methods of fumonisins and covert fumonisins, and elucidates the factors affecting fumonisins and their covert forms during processing. In addition to the metabolic production by plants and fungi, covert fumonisins are mainly produced by covalent or noncovalent binding, complexation, or physical entrapment of fumonisins with other substances. The toxicity of covert fumonisins is similar to that of free fumonisins and is a non-negligible hazard. Covert fumonisins are commonly found in food matrices, and methods to analyze them have yet to be improved. Food processing significantly affects the conversion of fumonisins to their covert toxins.

Sensitive, simultaneous and quantitative detection of deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 in the water environment using lateral flow immunoassay integrated with smartphone

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), as a group of highly toxic secondary metabolites, have become a potential source of water environmental pollutants. To minimize two mycotoxins exposure to consumers, a dual lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) integrated with the smartphone was reported for simultaneous and quantitative detection of DON and FB₁ in the water environment. The significantly improved sensitivity was contributed to a smartphone-based device with the ability to image and analyze results. Under optimized conditions, the detection limits of DON and FB₁ were calculated to be 3.46 and 2.65 ng/mL, which were approximately 25 and 10 folds lower than those of the visual detection of the LFIA. This method showed good specificity and a good dynamic linear detection for DON and FB₁. The recoveries of DON and FB₁ were evaluated by the spiked lake water, river water, and pond water, ranging from 92.47% to 106.2% with the relative standard deviation under 9.13%. Moreover, the results of the developed LFIA showed a high correlation with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results, with a correlation coefficient of 0.999 for DON and 0.996 for FB₁, respectively. To sum up, the developed LFIA provides a promising platform for sensitive, simultaneous, quantitative, and on-site detection of DON and FB₁ in the water environment.

Cell death induced by mycotoxin fumonisin B1 is accompanied by oxidative stress and transcriptional modulation in Arabidopsis cell culture

Fumonisin B₁ induces rapid programmed cell death in Arabidopsis cells, oxidative and nitrosative bursts, and differentially modulates cell death responsive genes. Glutathione is the main antioxidant involved in the stress response. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is a fungal toxin produced by Fusarium spp. able to exert pleiotropic toxicity in plants. FB₁ is known to be a strong inducer of the programmed cell death (PCD); however, the exact mechanism underling the plant-toxin interactions and the molecular events that lead to PCD are still unclear. Therefore, in this work, we provided a comprehensive investigation of the response of the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana at the nuclear, transcriptional, and biochemical level after the treatment with FB₁ at two different concentrations, namely 1 and 5 µM during a time-course of 96 h. FB₁ induced oxidative and nitrosative bursts and a rapid cell death in Arabidopsis cell cultures, which resembled a HR-like PCD event. Different genes involved in the regulation of PCD, antioxidant metabolism, photosynthesis, pathogenesis, and sugar transport were upregulated, especially during the late treatment time and with higher FB₁ concentration. Among the antioxidant enzymes and compounds studied, only glutathione appeared to be highly induced in both treatments, suggesting that it might be an important stress molecule induced during FB₁ exposure. Collectively, these findings highlight the complexity of the signaling network of A. thaliana and provide information for the understanding of the physiological, molecular, and biochemical responses to counteract FB₁-induced toxicity.

Impact of Mycotoxin Contaminations on Aquatic Organisms: Toxic Effect of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 Mixture

(1) Background: Multiple contaminations of several mycotoxins have been detected in human and veterinary food and feed worldwide. To date, a number of studies on the combined effects of mycotoxins have been conducted on cell and animal models, but very limited studies have been done on aquatic organisms. (2) The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the combined toxic effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and Fumonisin B1 (FB1) on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. (3) Results: Our results showed that the combination of AFB1 and FB1 at nontoxic concentrations exerted a negative effect on the lethal endpoints analyzed, such as survival, hatching, and heart rate. In addition, the mixture of mycotoxins caused an increase in the levels of enzymes and proteins involved in the antioxidant process, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), both in terms of protein levels and gene expression, as well as an increase in the levels of the detoxification enzymes glutathione s-transferases (GST) and cytochromes P450 (CYP450). Furthermore, we showed that the mycotoxin mixture induced an increase in pro-apoptotic proteins such as bax and caspase 3, and at the same time reduced the gene expression of the anti-apoptotic bcl-2 protein. Finally, a significant decrease in thyroid function was observed in terms of triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and vitellogenin (VTG) levels. (4) Conclusion: We can say that the mixture of mycotoxins carries a greater risk factor than individual presences. There is a greater need for effective detoxification methods to control and reduce the toxicity of multiple mycotoxins and reduce the toxicity of multiple mycotoxins in feed and throughout the food chain.

Bioenergetic Status of the Intestinal and Hepatic Cells after Short Term Exposure to Fumonisin B1 and Aflatoxin B1

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) are frequent contaminants of staple foods such as maize. Oral exposure to these toxins poses health hazards by disrupting cellular signaling. However, little is known regarding the multifaced mitochondrial dysfunction-linked toxicity of FB1 and AFB1. Here, we show that after exposure to FB1 and AFB1, mitochondrial respiration significantly decreased by measuring the oxygen consumption rate (OCR), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The current work shows that the integrity of mitochondria (MMP and ROS), that is the central component of cell apoptosis, is disrupted by FB1 and AFB1 in undifferentiated Caco-2 and HepG2 cells as in vitro models for human intestine and liver, respectively. It hypothesizes that FB1 and AFB1 could disrupt the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) to induce mitochondrial dysfunction and break the balance of transferring H⁺ between the mitochondrial inner membrane and mitochondrial matrix, however, the proton leak is not increasing and, as a result, ATP synthesis is blocked. At the sub-toxic exposure of 1.0 µg/mL for 24 h, i.e., a viability of 95% in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells, the mitochondrial respiration was, however, stimulated. This suggests that the treated cells could reserve energy for mitochondrial respiration with the exposure of FB1 and AFB1, which could be a survival advantage.

Fumonisin B1 induces hepatotoxicity in mice through the activation of oxidative stress, apoptosis and fibrosis

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a harmful environmental pollutant that induces hepatotoxicity, but the mechanism is still poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate the effects of FB1 on the liver of mice and discover the underlying molecular mechanisms. A total of 40 male mice were exposed to 0 or 5 mg/kg FB1 for 42 days, and then, they were sacrificed, and the liver and blood were collected. Besides, AML12 cells were exposed to FB1. Biochemical and liver related indexes as well morphological changes, redox, apoptosis and fibrosis related markers were measured in liver and AML12 cells. The results showed that the liver function and biochemical indexes in the blood were changes, and the histopathological analysis indicated that FB1 exposure caused hepatic sinusoid atrophy, hemosiderosis, hepatocyte steatosis and fibrosis, finally inducing liver injury. Notably, a significant increase in the intracellular antioxidant enzymes SOD1, SOD2, NF-κB (p65), H₂O₂ and NO was found in FB1 exposed AML12 cells and liver tissues. In addition, TUNEL staining showed many apoptotic cells, and western blotting revealed a significant increase in the pro-apoptosis proteins. FB1 also induced liver fibrosis by triggering TGF-β1/α-SMA/collagen/MMP signaling in the hepatocytes. Our results provide a novel explanation of the toxicological mechanism of action of FB1, which provoked oxidative stress, apoptosis and fibrosis in mice liver.

Mycotoxin Exposure during the First 1000 Days of Life and Its Impact on Children’s Health: A Clinical Overview

The first 1000 days of life are very sensitive to any event that alters health programming, and they represent a window for intervention to improve population health. Pregnant women, fetuses, and infants are particularly vulnerable to exposure to food contaminated with mycotoxins. This review aimed to gather data from the literature on mycotoxins exposure during intrauterine life and early childhood, and associated health risks, as assessed through human biomonitoring and mycotoxins occurrence in foods, in different continents. Maternal internal exposure to aflatoxins is associated with fetal growth restriction, while exposure to fumonisins increases the risk of offspring’s neural tube defects. Mycotoxin contamination of breast milk is reported worldwide, but data on adverse effects of the lactational transfer of mycotoxins on infant health are lacking. Young children are exposed to mycotoxins through contaminated infant formulas and baby foods. Both external and internal exposure to aflatoxins and fumonisins in children are reported to be associated with growth impairment. In low-income settings, where other co-factors can affect growth, this association should be interpreted with caution. Further studies on human biomonitoring of mother–infant pairs and young children are needed to guide management strategies aiming to minimize mycotoxin exposure at critical developmental stages.

Fumonisin B2 Induces Mitochondrial Stress and Mitophagy in Human Embryonic Kidney (Hek293) Cells-A Preliminary Study

Ubiquitous soil fungi parasitise agricultural commodities and produce mycotoxins. Fumonisin B2 (FB2), the structural analogue of the commonly studied Fumonisin B1 (FB1), is a neglected mycotoxin produced by several Fusarium species. Mycotoxins are known for inducing toxicity via mitochondrial stress alluding to mitochondrial degradation (mitophagy). These processes involve inter-related pathways that are regulated by proteins related to SIRT3 and Nrf2. This study aimed to investigate mitochondrial stress responses in human kidney (Hek293) cells exposed to FB2 for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed via the methylthiazol tetrazolium (MTT) assay, and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 = 317.4 µmol/L) was estimated using statistical software. Reactive oxygen species (ROS; H2DCFDA), mitochondrial membrane depolarisation (JC1-mitoscreen) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP; luminometry) levels were evaluated to assess mitochondrial integrity. The relative expression of mitochondrial stress response proteins (SIRT3, pNrf2, LONP1, PINK1, p62 and HSP60) was determined by Western blot. Transcript levels of SIRT3, PINK1 and miR-27b were assessed using quantitative PCR (qPCR). FB2 reduced ATP production (p = 0.0040), increased mitochondrial stress marker HSP60 (p = 0.0140) and suppressed upregulation of mitochondrial stress response proteins SIRT3 (p = 0.0026) and LONP1 (p = 0.5934). FB2 promoted mitophagy via upregulation of pNrf2 (p = 0.0008), PINK1 (p = 0.0014) and p62 (p < 0.0001) protein expression. FB2 also suppressed miR-27b expression (p < 0.0001), further promoting the occurrence of mitophagy. Overall, the findings suggest that FB2 increases mitochondrial stress and promotes mitophagy in Hek293 cells.

Efficacy of Fumonisin Esterase in Piglets as Animal Model for Fumonisin Detoxification in Humans: Pilot Study Comparing Intraoral to Intragastric Administration

Fumonisins, a group of highly prevalent and toxic mycotoxins, are suspected to be causal agents of several diseases in animals and humans. In the animal feed industry, fumonisin esterase is used as feed additive to prevent mycotoxicosis caused by fumonisins. In humans, a popular dosage form for dietary supplements, with high patient acceptance for oral intake, is capsule ingestion. Thus, fumonisin esterase provided in a capsule could be an effective strategy against fumonisin intoxication in humans. To determine the efficacy of fumonisin esterase through capsule ingestion, two modes of application were compared using piglets in a small-scale preliminary study. The enzyme was administered intraorally (in-feed analogue) or intragastrically (capsule analogue), in combination with fumonisin B1 (FB1). Biomarkers for FB1 exposure; namely FB1, hydrolysed FB1 (HFB1) and partially hydrolysed forms (pHFB1a and pHFB1b), were measured both in serum and faeces using a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, and toxicokinetic parameters were calculated. Additionally, the serum sphinganine/sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio, a biomarker of effect, was determined using LC-MS/MS. A significantly higher Sa/So ratio was shown in the placebo group compared to both esterase treatments, demonstrating the efficacy of the esterase. Moreover, a significant decrease in serum FB1 area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and an increase of faecal HFB1 AUC were observed after intraoral esterase administration. However, these effects were not observed with statistical significance after intragastric esterase administration with the current sample size.

Tissular Genomic Responses to Oral FB1 Exposure in Pigs

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a widespread mycotoxin produced by fungal Fusarium species—mainly in maize, one of the plants most commonly used for food and feed. Pigs and horses are the animal species most susceptible to this mycotoxin. FB1 exposure can cause highly diverse clinical symptoms, including hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and intestinal barrier function disturbance. Inhibition of ceramide synthetase is a well-understood ubiquitous molecular mechanism of FB1 toxicity, but other more tissue-specific effects remain to be elucidated. To investigate the effects of FB1 in different exposed tissues, we cross-analyzed the transcriptomes of fours organs: liver, jejunum, jejunal Peyer’s patches, and spleen. During a four-week study period, pigs were fed a control diet or a FB1-contaminated diet (10 mg/kg feed). In response to oral FB1 exposure, we observed common biological processes in the four organs, including predominant and recurrent processes (extracellular matrix organization, integrin activation, granulocyte chemotaxis, neutrophil migration, and lipid and sterol homeostasis), as well as more tissue-specific processes that appeared to be related to lipid outcomes (cell cycle regulation in jejunum, and gluconeogenesis in liver).

The Influence of Prenatal Fumonisin Exposure on Bone Properties, as well as OPG and RANKL Expression and Immunolocalization, in Newborn Offspring Is Sex and Dose Dependent

The current study examined the effects of exposure of pregnant dams to fumonisins (FBs; FB1 and FB2), from the seventh day of pregnancy to parturition, on offspring bone metabolism and properties. The rats were randomly divided into three groups intoxicated with FBs at either 0, 60, or 90 mg/kg b.w. Body weight and bone length were affected by fumonisin exposure, irrespective of sex or dose, while the negative and harmful effects of maternal FBs’ exposure on bone mechanical resistance were sex and dose dependent. The immunolocalization of osteoprotegerin (OPG) and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL), in bone and articular cartilage, indicated that the observed bone effects resulted from the FB-induced alterations in bone metabolism, which were confirmed by the changes observed in the Western blot expression of OPG and RANKL. It was concluded that the negative effects of prenatal FB exposure on the general growth and morphometry of the offspring bones, as a result of the altered expression of proteins responsible for bone metabolism, were dose and sex dependent.

Fumonisin B1 Inhibits Cell Proliferation and Decreases Barrier Function of Swine Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

The fumonisins are a group of common mycotoxins found around the world that mainly contaminate maize. As environmental toxins, they pose a threat to human and animal health. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most widely distributed and the most toxic. FB₁ can cause pulmonary edema in pigs. However, the current toxicity mechanism of fumonisins is still in the exploratory stage, which may be related to sphingolipid metabolism. Our study is designed to investigate the effect of FB₁ on the cell proliferation and barrier function of swine umbilical vein endothelial cells (SUVECs). We show that FB₁ can inhibit the cell viability of SUVECs. FB₁ prevents cells from entering the S phase from the G1 phase by regulating the expression of the cell cycle-related genes cyclin B1, cyclin D1, cyclin E1, Cdc25c, and the cyclin-dependent kinase-4 (CDK-4). This results in an inhibition of cell proliferation. In addition, FB₁ can also change the cell morphology, increase paracellular permeability, destroy tight junctions and the cytoskeleton, and reduce the expression of tight junction-related genes claudin 1, occludin, and ZO-1. This indicates that FB₁ can cause cell barrier dysfunction of SUVECs and promote the weakening or even destruction of the connections between endothelial cells. In turn, this leads to increased blood vessel permeability and promotes exudation. Our findings suggest that FB₁ induces toxicity in SUVECs by affecting cell proliferation and disrupting the barrier function.

Grape Seed Proanthocyanidin Ameliorates FB1-Induced Meiotic Defects in Porcine Oocytes

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), as the most prevalent and toxic fumonisin, poses a health threat to humans and animals. The cytotoxicity of FB₁ is closely related to oxidative stress and apoptosis. The purpose of this study is to explore whether Grape seed proanthocyanidin (GSP), a natural antioxidant, could alleviate the meiotic maturation defects of oocytes caused by FB₁ exposure. Porcine cumulus oocyte complexes (COCs) were treated with 30 μM FB₁ alone or cotreated with 100, 200 and 300 μM GSP during in vitro maturation for 44 h. The results show that 200 μM GSP cotreatment observably ameliorated the toxic effects of FB₁ exposure, showing to be promoting first polar body extrusion and improving the subsequent cleavage rate and blastocyst development rate. Moreover, 200 μM GSP cotreatment restored cell cycle progression, reduced the proportion of aberrant spindles, improved actin distribution and protected mitochondrial function in FB₁-exposed oocytes. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was significantly decreased and the mRNA levels of CAT, SOD2 and GSH-PX were obviously increased in the 200 μM GSP cotreatment group. Notably, the incidence of early apoptosis and autophagy level were also significantly decreased after GSP cotreatment and the mRNA expression levels of BAX, CASPASE3, LC3 and ATG5 were markedly decreased, whereas BCL2 and mTOR were observably increased in the oocytes after GSP cotreatment. Together, these results indicate that GSP could exert significant preventive effects on FB₁-induced oocyte defects by ameliorating oxidative stress through repairing mitochondrial dysfunction.

Fusarium Mycotoxins, Their Metabolites (Free, Emerging, and Masked), Food Safety Concerns, and Health Impacts

The genus Fusarium produces a number of mycotoxins of diverse chemical structures. Fusariotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi of the genus Fusarium. The important and commonly encountered fusariotoxins are trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone. Fusarium mycotoxins pose varying toxicities to humans and/or animals after consumption of contaminated grain. They can cause acute or chronic illness and, in some cases, death. For instance, a range of Fusarium mycotoxins can alter different intestinal defense mechanisms, such as the epithelial integrity, cell proliferation, mucus layer, immunoglobulins, and cytokine production. Of recent concern is the occurrence of emerging and masked Fusarium mycotoxins in agricultural commodities, which may contribute to toxic health effects, although the metabolic fate of masked mycotoxins still remains a matter of scientific discussion. These mycotoxins have attracted attention worldwide because of their impact on human and animal health, animal productivity, and the associated economic losses. In this paper, we review Fusarium mycotoxins and their metabolites with the aim of summarizing the baseline information on the types, occurrence, and health impacts of these mycotoxins in order to encourage much-needed research on integrated management of this unavoidable food contaminant as concerns for food safety continues to grow worldwide.

Fumonisin B1 exposure induces apoptosis of human kidney tubular epithelial cells through regulating PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway via disrupting lipid raft formation

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a fungal metabolite that causes a variety of toxicological effects to human and animals. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of FB1 on kidney injury and clarify the possible mechanism. Human kidney tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) were treated with FB1 for different concentrations. The results demonstrated that FB1 could suppress the viability of HK-2 cells. FB1 could lead to the apoptosis of HK-2 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, treatment of FB1 could induce the production of ROS and MDA. And the levels of SOD and GSH were decreased by FB1. The expression of Caspase-3 and Bax increased markedly and BCL2 expression was decreased by FB1 treatment. In addition, FB1 treatment could up-regulate PTEN expression and down-regulate PI3K and AKT expression. Also, FB1 could disrupt lipid raft by decreasing sphingomyelin level. In conclusion, FB1 exposure induces apoptosis of HK-2 cells through regulating PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway via disrupting lipid raft formation.

Fumonisin B1 induced aggressiveness and infection mechanism of Fusarium proliferatum on banana fruit

Mycotoxins are increasingly considered as micropollutants in the environment. Fumonisins, as one of the most important mycotoxins, cause potential health threats to humans and animals due to their ubiquitous contamination on cereals, fruit, vegetables and other environmental samples around the world. However, the contribution of fumonisins to the interaction of fungi with plant hosts is not still fully understood. Here, we investigated the effect of fumonisin B1 (FB1) on the infection of Fusarium proliferatum on banana fruit and the underlying mechanisms from the host perspective. Our results found that FB1 treatment increased the aggressiveness of F. proliferatum on banana fruit and inhibited the defense ability of banana fruit via decreasing phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), β-1,3-glucanase (GLU) and chitinase (CHI) activities. Meanwhile, FB1 accelerated cell death, indicated by higher relative conductivity, MDA content and higher transcripts of cell death-related genes. FB1 treatment resulted in higher hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) content possibly due to MaRBOHs induction. These consequences accelerated the ROS-dependent cell death, which subsequently result in reduction of disease resistance of banana fruit. Additionally, energy metabolism and MaDORN1s-mediated eATP signaling might involve in FB1-meidiated suppression of banana defense responses. Collectively, results of the current study indicated that FB1 contamination triggered the cell death of banana peel, subsequently instigating the invasion and growth of F. proliferatum on banana fruit. In summary, for the first time, we demonstrated a previously unidentified role of fumonisins as a potential virulence factor of F. proliferatum in modulating fruit defense response, which provides new insight on the biological roles of fumonisins.

Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins on Broiler Gut Cytoprotective Capacity

Mycotoxins are a crucial problem for poultry production worldwide. Two of the most frequently found mycotoxins in feedstuffs are deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FUM) which adversely affect gut health and poultry performance. The current knowledge on DON and FUM effects on broiler responses relevant for gut detoxification, antioxidant capacity, and health is still unclear. The aim of this study was to assess a range of selected molecular intestinal biomarkers for their responsiveness to the maximum allowable European Union dietary levels for DON (5 mg/kg) and FUM (20 mg/kg) in broilers. For the experimental purpose, a challenge diet was formulated, and biomarkers relevant for detoxification, antioxidant response, stress, inflammation, and integrity were profiled across the broiler intestine. The results reveal that DON significantly (p < 0.05) induced aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP) expression mainly at the duodenum. Moreover, DON and FUM had specific significant (p < 0.05) effects on the antioxidant response, stress, inflammation, and integrity depending on the intestinal segment. Consequently, broiler molecular responses to DON and FUM assessed via a powerful palette of biomarkers were shown to be mycotoxin and intestinal site specific. The study findings could be highly relevant for assessing various dietary bioactive components for protection against mycotoxins.

Fumonisin B1 exposure deteriorates oocyte quality by inducing organelle dysfunction and DNA damage in mice

Oocyte quality is critical for fertilization and early embryo development. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a Fusarium mycotoxin and it is commonly found in contaminated food and feedstuff, posing a potential health hazard to both animals and human. FB1 is reported to have hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity and embryotoxicity. However, the effects of FB1 on mouse oocyte quality are still unknown. Here, we explored the toxic effects and potential mechanisms of FB1 on oocyte maturation quality in mice. FB1 exposure inhibited the first polar body extrusion at concentrations of 30 μM and 50 μM, which further induced oocyte meiotic arrest. Besides, disrupted spindle structure was found in oocytes after FB1 exposure. Our results also showed that FB1 exposure impaired mitochondria dysfunction, which further induced oxidative stress and early apoptosis. In addition, we reported that FB1 exposure induced the accumulation of lysosome and occurrence of autophagy. Aberrant ER distribution and ER stress were also found in FB1-exposed oocytes. Moreover, DNA damage was also observed. These results together suggested that FB1 exposure affected oocyte quality by destroying spindle structure, leading to mitochondria, lysosome and ER dysfunction, which further induced oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy and DNA damage in mouse oocytes.

Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins Fed in Combination to Beef Cattle: Immunotoxicity and Gene Expression

We evaluated the effects of a treatment diet contaminated with 1.7 mg deoxynivalenol and 3.5 mg fumonisins (B1, B2 and B3) per kg ration on immune status and peripheral blood gene expression profiles in finishing-stage Angus steers. The mycotoxin treatment diet was fed for a period of 21 days followed by a two-week washout period during which time all animals consumed the control diet. Whole-blood leukocyte differentials were performed weekly throughout the experimental and washout period. Comparative profiles of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, along with bactericidal capacity of circulating neutrophils and monocytes were evaluated at 0, 7, 14, 21 and 35 days. Peripheral blood gene expression was measured at 0, 7, 21 and 35 days via RNA sequencing. Significant increases in the percentage of CD4-CD8+ T cells were observed in treatment-fed steers after two weeks of treatment and were associated with decreased CD4:CD8 T-cell ratios at this same timepoint (p ≤ 0.10). No significant differences were observed as an effect of treatment in terms of bactericidal capacity at any timepoint. Dietary treatments induced major changes in transcripts associated with endocrine, metabolic and infectious diseases; protein digestion and absorption; and environmental information processing (inhibition of signaling and processing), as evaluated by dynamic impact analysis. DAVID analysis also suggested treatment effects on oxygen transport, extra-cellular signaling, cell membrane structure and immune system function. These results indicate that finishing-stage beef cattle are susceptible to the immunotoxic and transcript-inhibitory effects of deoxynivalenol and fumonisins at levels which may be realistically encountered in feedlot situations.

Variations of enzymatic activity and gene expression in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos co-exposed to zearalenone and fumonisin B1

The natural co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins has been reported in cereals and cereal products worldwide. Even though the dietary exposure to mycotoxins constitutes a serious human health, most reports are limited to the toxic effect of individual mycotoxins. The purpose of the present study was to assess the combined toxic effects of zearalenone (ZEN) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) and the potential interaction of their mixture on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. Our results showed that ZEN possessed the higher toxicity to embryonic zebrafish (7-day LC₅₀ value of 0.78 mg a.i. L^-1) compared with FB1 (7-day LC₅₀ value of 227.7 mg a.i. L^-1). The combination of ZEN and FB1 exerted an additive effect on zebrafish embryos. Meanwhile, the activities of antioxidant CAT, caspase-3, and detoxification enzyme CYP450, as well as the expressions of six genes (Mn-sod, cas9, bax, cc-chem, ERα, and crh) associated with oxidative stress, cellular apoptosis, immune system, and endocrine system were prominently altered in the mixture exposure compared with the corresponding single treatment group of ZEN or FB1. Taken together, the regulatory standards of mycotoxins in food and feed should be updated based on the mixture effects of mycotoxins, and there is an increased need on effective detoxification methods for controlling and reducing the toxicity of multiple mycotoxins in animal feed and throughout the food supply chain.

Fumonisin B1 triggers carcinogenesis via HDAC/PI3K/Akt signalling pathway in human esophageal epithelial cells

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a contaminant that commonly present in the global environment, especially in food and feed. Epidemiologic studies have shown that esophageal cancer is associated with fumonisin toxicity. However, the molecular mechanism of FB1-induced esophageal cancer is unclear. In this research, the molecular mechanism of FB1-induced cell carcinogenesis in human esophageal epithelial cells line (HEEC) was explored. We found that FB1 (0.3125-5 μM) could promote cell proliferation, and the same phenomenon was found in a 3D cell model. FB1 could also accelerate cell migration. The expression levels of DNA damage markers were significantly increased after FB1 exposure. Meanwhile, the expression levels of cell cycle-regulated proteins and cancer-related genes were abnormal. Furthermore, FB1 significantly upregulated the histone deacetylase (HDAC) expression and activated the phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signalling pathway. The HDAC inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) could repressed FB1-promoted cell proliferation and abnormal phenomenon induced by FB1. Moreover, myriocin (ISP-1) could relieve FB1-enhanced HDAC expression and cell proliferation, which implied that ISP-1 may be used to block the fumonisin toxicity in the future. Our findings suggested that the HDAC/PI3K/Akt signalling pathway is a novel mechanism for FB1-induced cell carcinogenesis in HEEC and provided new ideas for the prevention and control of fumonisin toxicity, subsequently avoiding adverse effects on the ecosystem and human health.

Glycyrol alleviates the combined toxicity of fumonisin B1 and cadmium in vitro and in vivo

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a major food-borne mycotoxin commonly found in maize and maize-based products, while cadmium is one of the most common toxic heavy metals found in food, particularly in wheat and rice. Given the possibility of co-exposure to FB1 and cadmium for consumers, we elevated combined toxicity of FB1 and cadmium using both in vitro and in vivo models. Acute toxicity setting was employed in the present study. Mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) and human L02 liver cells were used to determine the in vitro cytotoxicity, while C57BL/6 N mice were used to assess the in vivo toxicity. Results showed that treatment with combination of FB1 (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 μM) and cadmium (3, 4, 5, 6, 7 μM) for 24 h led to synergistic cytotoxicity in vitro, and acute treatment with the combination of FB1/cadmium (1.5 mg/kg/60 mg/kg) for 5 days increased liver damage in vivo. Mechanistically, the combined toxicity was associated with elevated activation of IRE1α-JNK pathway. Glycyrol, a representative coumarin compound isolated from licorice, was able to reduce the combination-induced toxicity both in vitro and in vivo through suppression of IRE1α-JNK axis. The combined toxicity of FB1/cadmium should be taken into consideration for performing human health risk assessment of FB1/cadmium exposure.

Genotoxicity of three mycotoxin contaminants of rice: 28-day multi-endpoint assessment in rats

Deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), as the main mycotoxins contaminating rice, often coexist in food. Thus, we have measured the genotoxicity of the three rice fungal contaminants, singly and in different combinations, with a 28-day multi-endpoint (Pig-a assay + in vivo micronucleus [MN] test + comet assay) genotoxicity platform. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received the agents orally via gavage for 28 consecutive days, before performing the abovementioned tests. Results indicated that low dose of a single mycotoxin did not show significant genotoxicity. However, some of these mycotoxins in combination induced significant genotoxicity in the peripheral blood and tissues, at sacrifice. In the peripheral blood, the binary combination of DON and FB₁ significantly induced MN. In the liver, ZEN might aggravate the DNA-damaging effects of DON and FB₁. Therefore, the genotoxicity of sub-chronic exposure to mycotoxins in combination cannot be ignored.

The Effects of Mixed Fusarium Mycotoxins at EU-Permitted Feed Levels on Weaned Piglets' Tissue Lipids

At exactly the individual permitted EU-tolerance dietary limits, fumonisins (FB: 5 mg/kg diet) and mixed fusariotoxins (DZ: 0.9 mg deoxynivalenol + 0.1 mg zearalenone/kg diet, and FDZ: 5 mg fumonisins + 0.9 mg deoxynivalenol + 0.1 mg zearalenone/kg diet) were administered to piglets (n = 6/group) for three weeks. Bodyweights of intoxicated piglets increased, while feed conversion ratios decreased. In FDZ, both the absolute and relative weight of the liver decreased. In the renal-cellular membrane, the most pronounced alterations were in FDZ treatment, followed by individual FB exposure. In both treatments, high proportions of C20:0 and C22:0 with low fatty acid (FA) unsaturation were found. In hepatocyte phospholipids, FDZ toxins exerted antagonistic interactions, and FB had the strongest increasing effect on FA monounsaturation. Among all investigated organs, the spleen lipids were the least responsive, in which FDZ expressed synergistic reactions on C20:0 (↑ FDZ vs. FB) and C22:0 (↓ FDZ vs. DZ). The antioxidant defense of the kidney was depleted (↓ glutathione concentration by FB-exposure). Blood plasma indicated renal injury (profound increase of urea and creatinine in FB vs. DZ and FDZ). FB strongly increased total-cholesterol and low density lipoprotein concentrations, whereas FDZ synergistically increased gamma-glutamyltransferase, alkaline-phosphatase, calcium and phosphorus levels. Summarized, individual and combined multiple fusariotoxins modified the membrane lipid profile and antioxidant defense of splanchnic organs, and serum biochemicals, without retarding growth in piglets.

Phytobiotics with Adsorbent to Mitigate Toxicity of Multiple Mycotoxins on Health and Growth of Pigs

Phytobiotics with a mycotoxin adsorbent were used to mitigate negative effects of multiple mycotoxins in diets fed to pigs. In experiment 1, 120 pigs (11.6 kg body weight; BW) were assigned to five treatments (three pigs/pen) and fed for 28 days. Treatments were CON (control), MTD (CON + 2.5 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol), DP (MTD + phytobiotics at 0.1%), and DPA1 and DPA2 (MTD + phytobiotics and adsorbent at 0.1% and 0.2%, respectively). In experiment 2, 96 pigs (28.5 kg BW) were assigned to four treatments (three pigs/pen) and fed for 26 days. Treatments were CON, MTAF (CON + 0.19 mg/kg of aflatoxin and 8 mg/kg of fumonisins), AFP (MTAF + phytobiotics at 0.1%), and AFPA (MTAF + phytobiotics and adsorbent at 0.1%). Growth performance was measured weekly, and blood was sampled at the end of study to measure hepatic function and inflammatory status (TNF-α). Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure. In experiment 1, pigs fed MTD, DP, DPA1, and DPA2 had smaller (p < 0.05) BW than CON. Pigs fed DPA2 had greater (p < 0.05) BW than MTD. Pigs fed DP and DPA2 tended to have lower (p < 0.1) serum total protein than CON. Pigs fed MTD and DPA2 tended to have higher (p < 0.1) alanine aminotransferase than CON. Similarly, pigs fed MTD, DP, and DPA2 tended to have higher (p < 0.1) urea nitrogen/creatinine than CON. In experiment 2, pigs fed MTAF, AFP, and AFPA had smaller (p < 0.05) BW than CON. Pigs fed MTAF, AFP, and AFPA had smaller (p < 0.05) ADFI than CON. Pigs fed AFPA had higher (p < 0.05) aspartate aminotransferase than CON and MTAF. Pigs fed AFP and AFPA had higher (p < 0.05) alanine aminotransferase than CON. Pigs fed MTAF, AFP, and AFPA had lower (p < 0.05) urea nitrogen/creatinine than CON. Pigs fed AFPA had higher (p < 0.05) TNF-α than CON and MTAF. In conclusion, feeding an additional 2.5 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol or 0.19 mg/kg of aflatoxin with 8 mg/kg of fumonisins reduced the growth of pigs. Deoxynivalenol compromised the hepatic function of pigs. Phytobiotics with adsorbent could partly overcome the detrimental effects of mycotoxins.

A 65-Day Fumonisin B Exposure at High Dietary Levels Has Negligible Effects on the Testicular and Spermatological Parameters of Adult Rabbit Bucks

A 65-day study was undertaken to test the effects of two doses (10 and 20 mg/kg) of dietary fumonisin Bs (FB) on the rabbit male reproduction system. Body and testicular weight was not affected by the intoxication, neither the fatty acid composition of the testicular total phospholipids; the testis histological analysis failed to reveal any toxic effect. The FBs increased the testicular concentration and activity of reduced glutathione and glutathione peroxidase and decreased initial phase lipid peroxidation (conjugated dienes and trienes) in a dose dependent manner. Sperm morphology and chromatin condensation were monitored on Feulgen-stained smears. No significant differences were observed between the treatment groups and between sampling time points. The live cell ratio in the sperm (as assessed with flow cytometry) was not different among groups at any of the five sampling timepoints and was also identical within groups. Similarly, the spermatozoa membrane lipid profile was also identical in all three groups after the total intoxication period. In summary, it was demonstrated that FBs in an unrealistic and unjustified high dose still do not exert any drastic harmful effect on the leporine, male reproduction system, meanwhile slightly augmenting testicular antioxidant response.

A Fumonisin Prevention Tool for Targeting and Ranking Agroclimatic Conditions Favoring Exposure in French Maize-Growing Areas

The levels of fumonisins (FUMO)-mycotoxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides-in maize for food and feed are subject to European Union regulations. Compliance with the regulations requires the targeting of, among others, the agroclimatic factors influencing fungal contamination and FUMO production. Arvalis-Institut du végétal has created a national, multiyear database for maize, based on field survey data collected since 2003. This database contains information about agricultural practices, climatic conditions and FUMO concentrations at harvest for 738 maize fields distributed throughout French maize-growing regions. A linear mixed model approach highlights the presence of borers and the use of a late variety, high temperatures in July and October, and a water deficit during the maize cycle as creating conditions favoring maize contamination with Fusarium verticillioides. It is thus possible to target a combination of risk factors, consisting of this climatic sequence associated with agricultural practices of interest. The effects of the various possible agroclimatic combinations can be compared, grouped and classified as promoting very low to high FUMO concentrations, possibly exceeding the regulatory threshold. These findings should facilitate the creation of a national, informative and easy-to-use prevention tool for producers and agricultural cooperatives to manage the sanitary quality of their harvest.

Toxic Effects of Fumonisins, Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone Alone and in Combination in Ducks Fed the Maximum EUTolerated Level

Toxic effects among fumonisins B (FB), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) administered alone and combined were investigated in 84-day-old ducks during force-feeding. 75 male ducks, divided into five groups of 15 animals, received daily during the meal a capsule containing the desired among of toxin. Treated animals received dietary levels of toxins equivalent to 20 mg FB1+FB2/kg (FB), 5 mg DON/kg (DON), 0.5 mg ZEN/kg (ZEN) and 20, 5 and 0.5 mg/kg of FB, DON and ZEN (FBDONZEN), respectively. Control birds received capsules with no toxin. After 12 days, a decrease in body weight gain accompanied by an increase in the feed conversion ratio was observed in ducks exposed to FBDONZEN, whereas there was no effect on performances in ducks exposed to FB, DON and ZEN separately. No difference among groups was observed in relative organ weight, biochemistry, histopathology and several variables used to measure oxidative damage and testicular function. A sphinganine to sphingosine ratio of 0.32, 1.19 and 1.04, was measured in liver in controls and in ducks exposed to FB and FBDONZEN, respectively. Concentrations of FB1 in liver were 13.34 and 15.4 ng/g in ducks exposed to FB and FBDONZEN, respectively. Together ZEN and its metabolites were measured after enzymatic hydrolysis of the conjugated forms. Mean concentrations of α-zearalenol in liver were 0.82 and 0.54 ng/g in ducks exposed to ZEN and FBDONZEN, respectively. β-zearalenol was 2.3-fold less abundant than α-zearalenol, whereas ZEN was only found in trace amounts. In conclusion, this study suggests that decreased performance may occur in ducks exposed to a combination of FB, DON and ZEN, but does not reveal any other interaction between mycotoxins in any of the other variables measured.