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Xu W, Liang J, Zhang J, Song Y, Zhao X, Liu X, Zhang H, Sui H, Ye J, Wu Y, Ji J, Ye Y, Sun X, Xu J, Bai L, Han X, Zhang L. Natural Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Beauvericin and Enniatins in Wheat Kernels from China. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:290. [PMID: 39057930 PMCID: PMC11280995 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16070290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A total of 769 wheat kernels collected from six provinces in China were analyzed for beauvericin (BEA) and four enniatins (ENNs), namely, ENA, ENA1, ENB and ENB1, using a solid phase extraction (SPE) technique with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The results show that the predominant toxin was BEA, which had a maximum of 387.67 μg/kg and an average of 37.69 μg/kg. With regard to ENNs, the prevalence and average concentrations of ENB and ENB1 were higher than those of ENA and ENA1. The geographical distribution of BEA and ENNs varied. Hubei and Shandong exhibited the highest and lowest positive rates of BEA and ENNs (13.46% and 87.5%, respectively). However, no significant difference was observed among these six provinces. There was a co-occurrence of BEA and ENNs, and 42.26% of samples were simultaneously detected with two or more toxins. Moreover, a significant linear correlation in concentrations was observed between the four ENN analogs (r range: 0.75~0.96, p < 0.05). This survey reveals that the contamination and co-contamination of BEA and ENNs in Chinese wheat kernels were very common.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Jiang Liang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Jing Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Yan Song
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Xi Zhao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Xiao Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Hongyuan Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Haixia Sui
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Jin Ye
- National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100834, China; (J.Y.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yu Wu
- National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100834, China; (J.Y.); (Y.W.)
| | - Jian Ji
- School of Food Science, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (X.S.)
| | - Yongli Ye
- School of Food Science, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (X.S.)
| | - Xiulan Sun
- School of Food Science, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (X.S.)
| | - Jin Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Li Bai
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Xiaomin Han
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
| | - Lei Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; (W.X.); (J.L.); (J.Z.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.); (X.L.); (H.Z.); (H.S.); (J.X.); (L.B.)
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Deligeorgakis C, Magro C, Skendi A, Gebrehiwot HH, Valdramidis V, Papageorgiou M. Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Foods 2023; 12:4328. [PMID: 38231837 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christodoulos Deligeorgakis
- Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Christopher Magro
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta
| | - Adriana Skendi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Vasilis Valdramidis
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, GR-15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Papageorgiou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Mycotoxins in livestock feed in China - Current status and future challenges. Toxicon 2022; 214:112-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Yang X, Ali S, Zhao M, Richter L, Schäfer V, Schliehe-Diecks J, Frank M, Qi J, Larsen PK, Skerra J, Islam H, Wachtmeister T, Alter C, Huang A, Bhatia S, Köhrer K, Kirschning C, Weighardt H, Kalinke U, Kalscheuer R, Uhrberg M, Scheu S. The Mycotoxin Beauvericin Exhibits Immunostimulatory Effects on Dendritic Cells via Activating the TLR4 Signaling Pathway. Front Immunol 2022; 13:856230. [PMID: 35464417 PMCID: PMC9024221 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA), a mycotoxin of the enniatin family produced by various toxigenic fungi, has been attributed multiple biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial functions. However, effects of BEA on dendritic cells remain unknown so far. Here, we identified effects of BEA on murine granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-cultured bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and the underlying molecular mechanisms. BEA potently activates BMDCs as signified by elevated IL-12 and CD86 expression. Multiplex immunoassays performed on myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) and toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain containing adaptor inducing interferon beta (TRIF) single or double deficient BMDCs indicate that BEA induces inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in a MyD88/TRIF dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that BEA was not able to induce IL-12 or IFNβ production in Toll-like receptor 4 (Tlr4)-deficient BMDCs, whereas induction of these cytokines was not compromised in Tlr3/7/9 deficient BMDCs. This suggests that TLR4 might be the functional target of BEA on BMDCs. Consistently, in luciferase reporter assays BEA stimulation significantly promotes NF-κB activation in mTLR4/CD14/MD2 overexpressing but not control HEK-293 cells. RNA-sequencing analyses further confirmed that BEA induces transcriptional changes associated with the TLR4 signaling pathway. Together, these results identify TLR4 as a cellular BEA sensor and define BEA as a potent activator of BMDCs, implying that this compound can be exploited as a promising candidate structure for vaccine adjuvants or cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Yang
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Shafaqat Ali
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Manman Zhao
- Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lisa Richter
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vanessa Schäfer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Julian Schliehe-Diecks
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marian Frank
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jing Qi
- Institute for Transplantation Diagnostics and Cell Therapeutics, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Pia-Katharina Larsen
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jennifer Skerra
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Heba Islam
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital of Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Thorsten Wachtmeister
- Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ), Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christina Alter
- Institute of Molecular Cardiology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Anfei Huang
- Institute for Systems Immunology, Julius-Maximilians-Universität of Würzburg (JMU), Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sanil Bhatia
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Karl Köhrer
- Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ), Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Carsten Kirschning
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital of Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Heike Weighardt
- Immunology and Environment, Life & Medical Sciences (LIMES) Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ulrich Kalinke
- Institute for Experimental Infection Research, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence - Resolving Infection Susceptibility (RESIST, EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rainer Kalscheuer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Markus Uhrberg
- Institute for Transplantation Diagnostics and Cell Therapeutics, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefanie Scheu
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- *Correspondence: Stefanie Scheu,
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Cytochrome P450 isoforms contribution, plasma protein binding, toxicokinetics of enniatin A in rats and in vivo clearance prediction in humans. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 164:112988. [PMID: 35398446 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.112988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins, such as enniatin A (ENNA), are becoming a worldwide concern owing to their presence in different types of food and feed. However, comprehensive toxicokinetic data that links intake, exposure and toxicological effects of ENNA has not been elucidated yet. Therefore, the present study investigated the in vitro (rat and human) and in vivo (rat) toxicokinetic properties of ENNA. Towards this, an easily applicable and sensitive bioanalytical method was developed and validated for the estimation of ENNA in rat plasma. ENNA exhibited high plasma protein binding (99%), high hepatic clearance and mainly underwent metabolism via CYP3A4 (74%). The in-house predicted hepatic clearance (54 mL/min/kg) and observed in vivo rat clearance (55 mL/min/kg) were comparable. The predicted in vivo human hepatic clearance was 18 mL/min/kg. ENNA underwent slow absorption (Tmax = 4 h) and rapid elimination following oral administration to rats. The absolute oral bioavailability was 47%. The toxicokinetic findings for ENNA from this study will help in designing and interpreting toxicological studies in rats. Besides, these findings could be used in physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model development for exposure predictions and risk assessment for ENNA in humans.
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Sá SVMD, Monteiro C, Fernandes JO, Pinto E, Faria MA, Cunha SC. Emerging mycotoxins in infant and children foods: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 63:1707-1721. [PMID: 34486889 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1967282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A proper nutrition is crucial for children's healthy development. Regardless of the usual recommendations to follow a varied diet, some foods can be a source of toxic natural contaminants such as mycotoxins, potent secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. In addition to the most well-known mycotoxins, many of which are subject to tight regulation regarding the maximum levels allowed in different types of food, there is a large group of mycotoxins, the so-called emerging mycotoxins, about which less knowledge has already been acquired, which have gradually been the target of interest from the scientific community due to their prevalence in most foodstuffs, particularly in cereals and cereal-based products. Alternariol and his metabolite alternariol mono-methyl ether, beauvericin, citrinin, culmorin, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaproliferin, kojic acid, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin, tentoxin and tenuazonic acid are the most representative of them. The current review gathered the information of the last ten years that have been published on the levels of emerging mycotoxins in food products dedicated for infants and children. European Union countries are responsible for most of the reported studies, which showed levels that can reach hundreds of mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia V M de Sá
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina Monteiro
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - José O Fernandes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eugénia Pinto
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Faria
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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García-Nicolás M, Arroyo-Manzanares N, Campillo N, Viñas P. Cellulose-ferrite nanocomposite for monitoring enniatins and beauvericins in paprika by liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Talanta 2021; 226:122144. [PMID: 33676695 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Paprika is considered a high-quality product being one of the most consumed spices in the world. Contamination with mycotoxins may appear due to inappropriate practices during processing or resulting from invading mould in the final manufactured products. A sample treatment based on dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction (DMSPE) has been proposed for emerging mycotoxin determination, enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericins (BEAs), in paprika. Different magnetic nanoparticles were tested, and cellulose-ferrite nanocomposite was selected for the extraction and preconcentration of the mycotoxins. Nanocomposite was characterised using field emission scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy in terms of morphology and elemental composition. High-resolution mass spectrometry allowed the quantification of the five main emerging mycotoxins and the monitoring of unexpected members of this class of toxic fungal secondary metabolites. The method has been validated, obtaining limits of quantification between 9.5 and 9.9 μg kg-1 and testing its trueness through recovery studies, with satisfactory values of between 89.5 and 97.7%. Relative standard deviations were calculated to evaluate the intra- and inter-day precision and values lower than 8% were obtained in all cases. The analysis of 26 samples, including conventional and organic, demonstrated the presence of ENNB1 at 12.0 ± 0.6 μg kg-1 in one of the samples studied. Other analogues ENNs and BEAs were not detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- María García-Nicolás
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Natalia Arroyo-Manzanares
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Natalia Campillo
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Pilar Viñas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain.
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Beauvericin and Enniatins: In Vitro Intestinal Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110686. [PMID: 33138307 PMCID: PMC7693699 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Food and feed contamination by emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins is a worldwide health problem and a matter of great concern nowadays, and data on their toxicological behavior are still scarce. As ingestion is the major route of exposure to mycotoxins in food and feed, the gastrointestinal tract represents the first barrier encountered by these natural contaminants and the first structure that could be affected by their potential detrimental effects. In order to perform a complete and reliable toxicological evaluation, this fundamental site cannot be disregarded. Several in vitro intestinal models able to recreate the different traits of the intestinal environment have been applied to investigate the various aspects related to the intestinal toxicity of emerging mycotoxins. This review aims to depict an overall and comprehensive representation of the in vitro intestinal effects of beauvericin and enniatins in humans from a species-specific perspective. Moreover, information on the occurrence in food and feed and notions on the regulatory aspects will be provided.
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Gautier C, Pinson-Gadais L, Richard-Forget F. Fusarium Mycotoxins Enniatins: An Updated Review of Their Occurrence, the Producing Fusarium Species, and the Abiotic Determinants of Their Accumulation in Crop Harvests. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:4788-4798. [PMID: 32243758 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cereal grains and their processed food products are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus. Enniatins (ENNs), which belong to the so-called "emerging mycotoxins" family, are among the most frequently found in small grain cereals. Health hazards induced by a chronic exposure to ENNs or an association of ENNs with other major mycotoxins is a risk that cannot be excluded given the current toxicological data. Thus, efforts must be pursued to define efficient control strategies to mitigate their presence in cereal grains. A key condition for achieving this aim is to gain deep and comprehensive knowledge of the factors promoting the appearance of ENNs in crop harvests. After an update of ENN occurrence data, this review surveys the scientific literature on the Fusarium species responsible for ENN contamination and covers the recent advances concerning the abiotic determinants and the genetic regulation of ENN biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Gautier
- INRAE, UR 1264, Unité MycSA, 71 Avenue Edouard Bourlaux, 33883 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Laetitia Pinson-Gadais
- INRAE, UR 1264, Unité MycSA, 71 Avenue Edouard Bourlaux, 33883 Villenave d'Ornon, France
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Predicting Virulence of Fusarium Oxysporum f. sp. Cubense Based on the Production of Mycotoxin Using a Linear Regression Model. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040254. [PMID: 32295210 PMCID: PMC7232494 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) is one of the most destructive diseases for banana. For their risk assessment and hazard characterization, it is vital to quickly determine the virulence of Foc isolates. However, this usually takes weeks or months using banana plant assays, which demands a better approach to speed up the process with reliable results. Foc produces various mycotoxins, such as fusaric acid (FSA), beauvericin (BEA), and enniatins (ENs) to facilitate their infection. In this study, we developed a linear regression model to predict Foc virulence using the production levels of the three mycotoxins. We collected data of 40 Foc isolates from 20 vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs), including their mycotoxin profiles (LC-MS) and their plant disease index (PDI) values on Pisang Awak plantlets in greenhouse. A linear regression model was trained from the collected data using FSA, BEA and ENs as predictor variables and PDI values as the response variable. Linearity test statistics showed this model meets all linearity assumptions. We used all data to predict PDI with high fitness of the model (coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.906) and adjust coefficient (R2adj = 0.898)) indicating a strong predictive power of the model. In summary, we developed a linear regression model useful for the prediction of Foc virulence on banana plants from the quantification of mycotoxins in Foc strains, which will facilitate quick determination of virulence in newly isolated Foc emerging Fusarium wilt of banana epidemics threatening banana plantations worldwide.
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Arroyo-Manzanares N, Peñalver-Soler R, Campillo N, Viñas P. Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction using Magnetic Carbon Nanotube Composite for the Determination of Emergent Mycotoxins in Urine Samples. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E51. [PMID: 31952350 PMCID: PMC7020456 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction (DMSPE) has received growing attention for sample treatment preconcentration prior to the separation of analytes due to its many advantages. In the present work, the potential of DMSPE for the determination of emergent mycotoxins (enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and beauvericin) is investigated for the first time. Different magnetic nanoparticles were tested and a magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotube (Fe3O4@MWCNT) composite was selected for the extraction and preconcentration of the five target mycotoxins in human urine samples before their analysis by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). The nanocomposite was characterized by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry, and X-ray diffraction. Several parameters affecting the adsorption and desorption of DMSPE steps were optimized and the method was fully validated. Due to a matrix effect, matrix-matched calibration curves were necessary to carry out quantification. In this way, limits of quantification of between 0.04 and 0.1 μg/L, relative standard deviation values lower than 12% and recoveries between 89.3% and 98.9% were obtained. Finally, a study of the reuse of the Fe3O4@MWCNT composite was carried out, confirming that it can be reused at least four times.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pilar Viñas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence “Campus Mare Nostrum”, University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain; (N.A.-M.); (R.P.-S.); (N.C.)
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Occurrence of Mycotoxigenic Fusarium Species and Competitive Fungi on Preharvest Maize Ear Rot in Poland. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11040224. [PMID: 30991649 PMCID: PMC6520860 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11040224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize has become one of the most important crops for food and feed production-both as a silage and crop residue worldwide. The present study aimed to identify the co-occurrence of Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium verticillioides, Trichoderma atroviride, Sarocladium zeae, and Lecanicillium lecanii on maize ear rot. Further, the accumulation of mycotoxins as secondary metabolites of Fusarium spp. in maize ear samples was also analyzed. Maize ear samples were collected between 2014 and 2017 from two main maize growing areas in Poland (Greater Poland and Silesia region). A significant difference was found in the frequency of two main Fusarium spp. that infect maize ears, namely F. subglutinans and F. verticillioides. In addition to Fusarium spp. T. atroviride, S. zeae, and L. lecanii were also identified. T. atroviride species was found in 14% of maize samples examined between 2014 and 2017, particularly with a high percentage of Trichoderma spp. recorded in 2014, i.e., in 31% of samples. However, mycotoxin content (beauvericin and fumonisins) varied, depending on both the location and year of sampling. The interaction of fungi and insects inhabiting maize ear and kernel is very complex and not yet elucidated. Therefore, further research is required in this area.
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Abstract
A total of 470 edible vegetable oil samples including peanut, soybean, rapeseed, sesame seed, corn, blend, and others collected from eight provinces of China were analyzed for the concentrations of beauvericin (BEA), enniatin A (ENA), A1 (ENA1), B (ENB), and B1 (ENB1) by ultraperformance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-MS/MS). Concentrations of BEA, ENB, and ENB1 (average = 5.59 μg/kg, 5.16 μg/kg, and 4.61 μg/kg) in all positive samples were higher than those for ENA and ENA1 (average = 0.85 μg/kg and 1.88 μg/kg). Frequencies of BEA and ENNs in all analyzed samples were all higher than 50% with the exception of ENA1 (36.6%, 172/470). Levels of BEA and ENNs in all analyzed samples varied based on their sample types and geographical distributions (Kruskal–Wallis test, p < 0.05). The soybean and peanut oil samples were found to be more easily contaminated by BEA and ENNs than other oil samples. Concentrations of BEA and ENNs in samples obtained from Heilongjiang, Shandong and Guizhou were higher than those found in samples from other provinces. Besides, frequencies of mycotoxin co-contaminations were high and their co-contamination types also varied by oil types. BEA-ENA-ENA1-ENB-ENB1 was the most commonly found toxin combination type, almost in one third of the analyzed samples (30%, 141/470). Overall, these results indicate that co-occurrence of BEA and ENNs in analyzed Chinese edible vegetable oil samples is highly common, and it is vital to monitor them, both simultaneously and on a widespread level.
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