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Abd El-Hack ME, Kamal M, Altaie HAA, Youssef IM, Algarni EH, Almohmadi NH, Abukhalil MH, Khafaga AF, Alqhtani AH, Swelum AA. Peppermint essential oil and its nano-emulsion: Potential against aflatoxigenic fungus Aspergillus flavus in food and feed. Toxicon 2023; 234:107309. [PMID: 37802220 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
A facultative parasite called Aspergillus flavus contaminates several important food crops before and after harvest. In addition, the pathogen that causes aspergillosis infections in humans and animals is opportunistic. Aflatoxin, a secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus, is also carcinogenic and mutagenic, endangering human and animal health and affecting global food security. Peppermint essential oils and plant-derived natural products have recently shown promise in combating A. flavus infestations and aflatoxin contamination. This review discusses the antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic properties of peppermint essential oils. It then discusses how peppermint essential oils affect the growth of A. flavus and the biosynthesis of aflatoxins. Several cause physical, chemical, or biochemical changes to the cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria, and associated metabolic enzymes and genes. Finally, the prospects for using peppermint essential oils and natural plant-derived chemicals to develop novel antifungal agents and protect foods are highlighted. In addition to reducing the risk of aspergillosis infection, this review highlights the significant potential of plant-derived natural products and peppermint essential oils to protect food and feed from aflatoxin contamination and A. flavus infestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed E Abd El-Hack
- Poultry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt.
| | - Mahmoud Kamal
- Animal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Dokki, Giza 12618, Egypt
| | - Hayman A A Altaie
- Department of Medical Laboratory Techniques, College of Medical Technology, Al-kitab University, Kirkuk 36001, Iraq
| | - Islam M Youssef
- Animal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Dokki, Giza 12618, Egypt
| | - Eman H Algarni
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Science, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, 18 Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Najlaa H Almohmadi
- Clinical Nutrition Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad H Abukhalil
- Department of Medical Analysis, Princess Aisha Bint Al-Hussein College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Ma'an 71111, Jordan; Department of Biology, College of Science, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Ma'an 71111, Jordan
| | - Asmaa F Khafaga
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Edfina 22758, Egypt
| | - Abdulmohsen H Alqhtani
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ayman A Swelum
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Jesmin R, Cary JW, Lebar MD, Majumdar R, Gummadidala PM, Dias T, Chandler S, Basu P, Decho AW, Keller NP, Chanda A. Vibrio gazogenes-dependent disruption of aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus: the connection with endosomal uptake and hyphal morphogenesis. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1208961. [PMID: 37744918 PMCID: PMC10516221 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1208961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins, a family of fungal secondary metabolites, are toxic and carcinogenic compounds that pose an enormous threat to global food safety and agricultural sustainability. Specifically agricultural products in African, Southeast Asian and hot and humid regions of American countries suffer most damage from aflatoxin producing molds due to the ideal climate conditions promoting their growth. Our recent studies suggest that Vibrio gazogenes (Vg), an estuarine bacterium non-pathogenic to plants and humans, can significantly inhibit aflatoxin biosynthesis in the producers. In this study, we investigated the mechanism underlying Vg-dependent aflatoxin inhibition using the prominent aflatoxin producer, Aspergillus flavus. We show that aflatoxin inhibition upon Vg treatment was associated with fungal uptake of Vg-prodigiosin, a red pigment, which was consistently visible inside fungal hyphae during treatment. The association of prodigiosin with aflatoxin inhibition was further evident as Serratia marcescens, another prodigiosin producer, significantly inhibited aflatoxin, while non-producers like Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio harveyi, and Vibrio fischeri did not. Also, pure prodigiosin significantly inhibited aflatoxin biosynthesis. Endocytosis inhibitors, filipin and natamycin, reduced the Vg-prodigiosin uptake by the fungus leading to a significant increase in aflatoxin production, suggesting that uptake is endocytosis-dependent. The Vg treatment also reduced hyphal fusion (>98% inhibition) and branching, which are both endosome-dependent processes. Our results, therefore, collectively support our theory that Vg-associated aflatoxin inhibition is mediated by an endocytosis-dependent uptake of Vg-prodigiosin, which possibly leads to a disruption of normal endosomal functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeffrey W. Cary
- Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, USDA/ARS, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Matthew D. Lebar
- Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, USDA/ARS, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Rajtilak Majumdar
- Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research, United States Department of Agriculture, Kimberly, ID, United States
| | - Phani M. Gummadidala
- University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapell Hill, NC, United States
| | - Travis Dias
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Greenville, NC, United States
| | - Savannah Chandler
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
| | - Paramita Basu
- New York College of Podiatric Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Alan W. Decho
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
| | - Nancy P. Keller
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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Human health risk assessment of aflatoxin M1 in raw and pasteurized milk from the Kermanshah province, Iran. J Food Compost Anal 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2022.104568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
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Sharafi K, Matin BK, Omer AK, Mansouri B, Soleimani H, Fattahi N, Sharafi H, Kiani A. A worldwide systematic literature review for aflatoxin M1 in infant formula milk: Human health risk assessment by Monte Carlo simulation. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
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Anjum T, Iram W, Iqbal M, Abbas M, Akram W, Li G. Structure Elucidation and Toxicity Analysis of the Byproducts Formed after Biodegradation of Aflatoxins B1 and B2 Using Extracts of Mentha arvensis. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14010024. [PMID: 35051001 PMCID: PMC8781851 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The aqueous extracts of leaves and shoots of Mentha arvensis were checked for their potential to biodegrade aflatoxin B1 and B2 (AFB1; 100 µg/L and AFB2; 50 µg/L) through in vitro assays. Overall, the results showed that leaf extract degrades aflatoxins more efficiently than the shoot extract. First, the pH, temperature and incubation time were optimized for maximum degradation by observing this activity at different temperatures between 25 and 60 °C, pH between 2 and 10 and incubation time from 3 to 72 h. In general, an increase in all these parameters significantly increased the percentage of biodegradation. In vitro trials on mature maize stock were performed under optimized conditions, i.e., pH 8, temperature 30 °C and an incubation period of 72 h. The leaf extract resulted in 75% and 80% biodegradation of AFB1 and AFB2, respectively. Whereas the shoot extract degraded both toxins up to 40–48%. The structural elucidation of degraded toxin products by LCMS/MS analysis showed seven degraded products of AFB1 and three of AFB2. MS/MS spectra showed that most of the products were formed by the loss of the methoxy group from the side chain of the benzene ring, the removal of the double bond in the terminal furan ring and the modification of the lactone group, indicating less toxicity compared to the parent compounds. The degraded products showed low toxicity against brine shrimps, confirming that M. arvensis leaf extract has significant potential to biodegrade aflatoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tehmina Anjum
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for New Technology Research of Vegetables, Vegetable Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; (T.A.); (W.A.)
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Wajiha Iram
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Mazhar Iqbal
- Health Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan;
| | - Mateen Abbas
- Quality Operations Laboratory, Department of Toxicology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Waheed Akram
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for New Technology Research of Vegetables, Vegetable Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; (T.A.); (W.A.)
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
- BECS Analytics and Innovation Research Boulevard, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Guihua Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for New Technology Research of Vegetables, Vegetable Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; (T.A.); (W.A.)
- Correspondence:
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Cha M, Wang E, Hao Y, Ji S, Huang S, Zhao L, Wang W, Shao W, Wang Y, Li S. Adsorbents Reduce Aflatoxin M 1 Residue in Milk of Healthy Dairy Cow Exposed to Moderate Level Aflatoxin B 1 in Diet and Its Exposure Risk for Humans. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090665. [PMID: 34564669 PMCID: PMC8470591 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of moderate risk level (8 µg/kg) AFB1 in diet supplemented with or without adsorbents on lactation performance, serum parameters, milk AFM1 content of healthy lactating cows and the AFM1 residue exposure risk in different human age groups. Forty late healthy lactating Holstein cows (270 ± 22 d in milk; daily milk yield 21 ± 3.1 kg/d) were randomly assigned to four treatments: control diet without AFB1 and adsorbents (CON), CON with 8 μg/kg AFB1 (dry matter basis, AF), AF + 15 g/d adsorbent 1 (AD1), AF + 15 g/d adsorbent 2 (AD2). The experiment lasted for 19 days, including an AFB1-challenge phase (day 1 to 14) and an AFB1-withdraw phase (day 15 to 19). Results showed that both AFB1 and adsorbents treatments had no significant effects on the DMI, milk yield, 3.5% FCM yield, milk components and serum parameters. Compared with the AF, AD1 and AD2 had significantly lower milk AFM1 concentrations (93 ng/L vs. 46 ng/L vs. 51 ng/L) and transfer rates of dietary AFB1 into milk AFM1 (1.16% vs. 0.57% vs. 0.63%) (p < 0.05). Children aged 2–4 years old had the highest exposure risk to AFM1 in milk in AF, with an EDI of 1.02 ng/kg bw/day and a HI of 5.11 (HI > 1 indicates a potential risk for liver cancer). Both AD1 and AD2 had obviously reductions in EDI and HI for all population groups, whereas, the EDI (≥0.25 ng/kg bw/day) and HI (≥1.23) of children aged 2–11 years old were still higher than the suggested tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.20 ng/kg bw/day and 1.00 (HI). In conclusion, moderate risk level AFB1 in the diet of healthy lactating cows could cause a public health hazard and adding adsorbents in the dairy diet is an effective measure to remit AFM1 residue in milk and its exposure risk for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manqian Cha
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China; (M.C.); (W.S.)
| | - Erdan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yangyi Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Shoukun Ji
- College of Animal Science, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071000, China;
| | - Shuai Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Lihong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Wei Shao
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China; (M.C.); (W.S.)
| | - Yajing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Shengli Li
- College of Animal Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China; (M.C.); (W.S.)
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (E.W.); (Y.H.); (S.H.); (L.Z.); (W.W.); (Y.W.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-010-6273-1254
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Muaz K, Riaz M, Oliveira CAFD, Akhtar S, Ali SW, Nadeem H, Park S, Balasubramanian B. Aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products: global occurrence and potential decontamination strategies. TOXIN REV 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2021.1873387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Khurram Muaz
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Riaz
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | | | - Saeed Akhtar
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Shinawar Waseem Ali
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Habibullah Nadeem
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Sungkwon Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sejong University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Marshall H, Meneely JP, Quinn B, Zhao Y, Bourke P, Gilmore BF, Zhang G, Elliott CT. Novel decontamination approaches and their potential application for post-harvest aflatoxin control. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Guo Y, Zhao L, Ma Q, Ji C. Novel strategies for degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: A review. Food Res Int 2020; 140:109878. [PMID: 33648196 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites mainly produced by Aspergillus fungi, posing high carcinogenic potency in humans and animals. Dietary exposure to aflatoxins is a global problem in both developed and developing countries especially where there is poor regulation of their levels in food and feed. Thus, academics have been striving over the decades to develop effective strategies for degrading aflatoxins in food and feed. These strategies are technologically diverse and based on physical, chemical, or biological principles. This review summarizes the recent progress on novel aflatoxin degradation strategies including irradiation, cold plasma, ozone, electrolyzed oxidizing water, organic acids, natural plant extracts, microorganisms and enzymes. A clear understanding of the detoxification efficiency, mechanism of action, degradation products, application potential and current limitations of these methods is presented. In addition, the development and future perspective of nanozymes in aflatoxins degradation are introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongpeng Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China.
| | - Lihong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China.
| | - Qiugang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China.
| | - Cheng Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China.
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Enhancing the Utilization of Palm Leaf Hay Using Bacillus subtilis and Phanerochaete chrysosporium in the Diet of Lambs Under Desert Conditions. ANNALS OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/aoas-2020-0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The efficiency of the bacterium Bacillus subtilis and white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium on growth performance, blood metabolites, carcass characteristics, meat composition and nutrient digestibility of lambs fed crushed whole palm leaf hay was investigated for 105 d. In Experiment 1 (Growth experiment), twenty-four lambs (29.5 ± 1.25 kg) were divided into four feed-based treatments: (1) concentrate and wheat straw ad libitum (control), (2) palm leaf hay (DPL), (3) palm leaf hay supplemented with 2 g of B. subtilis and P. chrysosporium (DPL2) or (4) palm leaf hay supplemented with 4 g of B. subtilis and P. chrysosporium (DPL4). In Experiment 2 (Digestibility experiment), twelve rams, three from each treatment, were used to study nutrient digestibility using the faecal bag technique. Results of the Experiment 1 showed that the DPL4 showed greater (P=0.049) live-weight gain than the control. The diets containing palm leaf hay showed lower (P=0.001) roughage and total feed intake and higher (P=0.001) feed efficiency than the control. Increased serum total protein, globulin, urea-N, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels were observed with the DPL4 (P˂0.05). Additionally, diets containing palm leaf hay showed higher ALT levels than the control. The DPL4 increased the hot carcass weight (P=0.006) and dressing percentage (P=0.036), and the diets supplemented with B. subtilis and P. chrysosporium decreased (P˂0.05) the tail fat and all fat levels compared with the DPL treatment. Results of the Experiment 2 showed that nutrient digestibility was lower (P˂0.05) with the DPL and DPL2 than with the control and DPL4. Compared with the control, nutrient digestibility of DPL4 was not affected. It is concluded that replacement of wheat straw with palm leaf hay did not affect the feed utilization or animal performance of the lambs; however, supplementation with B. subtilis and P. chrysosporium at 4 g/lamb daily enhanced the growth performance, and carcass characteristics without any adverse effects on blood metabolites.
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The challenges of global occurrence of aflatoxin M1 contamination and the reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk over the past decade. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Mycotoxin toxicity and residue in animal products: Prevalence, consumer exposure and reduction strategies - A review. Toxicon 2020; 177:96-108. [PMID: 31972175 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxin residues are transferred from feed to animal products, yet, less attention has been paid to it in developing countries. There is a need to find alternative alleviation material for reducing the impact of mycotoxin. This review is meant to elucidate different additives that can reduce mycotoxin residue in animal products in the world, especially in developing countries. There is evidence of relationship between mycotoxin residue in breast milk of nursing mothers and mycotoxin exposure through crop and animal product (egg and milk) intake, especially in Asia, Africa, Middle East, Latin America, and some parts of Europe. Younger livestock tends to have more toxin residues in their tissue compared to older ones. Grazing animal are also exposed to mycotoxin intake which corresponds to high level of mycotoxins in their products including meat and milk. This review shows that phytogenic, probiotic, and prebiotic additives can decrease mycotoxin residues in milk, eggs, meat liver and other tissues of livestock. Specifically, bentonites, difructose anhydride III, yeast (Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans), Bacillus spp., or their biodegradable products can reduce mycotoxin residue in animal products. In addition, Ally isothiocyanates from mustard seed were able to mitigate mycotoxins in silo-simulated system. Evidence shows that there are now low-cost, accessible, and eco-friendly additives, which could alleviate the effect of mycotoxin in feed and food. In addition, there is need for aggressive public awareness and farmers' education on the prevalence, and danger caused by mycotoxins, as well as detoxification strategies that can reduce toxin absorption into animal products.
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