The Effect of Different Doses of Zearalenone in Feed on the Bioavailability of Zearalenone and Alpha-Zearalenol, and the Concentrations of Estradiol and Testosterone in the Peripheral Blood of Pre-Pubertal Gilts

Associations between mycoestrogen exposure and sex steroid hormone concentrations in maternal serum and cord blood in the UPSIDE pregnancy cohort

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a fungal-derived toxin found in global food supplies including cereal grains and processed foods, impacting populations worldwide through diet. Because the chemical structure of ZEN and metabolites closely resembles 17β-estradiol (E2), they interact with estrogen receptors α/β earning their designation as 'mycoestrogens'. In animal models, gestational exposure to mycoestrogens disrupts estrogen activity and impairs fetal growth. Here, our objective was to evaluate relationships between mycoestrogen exposure and sex steroid hormone concentrations in maternal circulation and cord blood for the first time in humans. In each trimester, pregnant participants in the UPSIDE study (n = 297) provided urine for mycoestrogen analysis and serum for hormone analysis. At birth, placental mycoestrogens and cord steroids were measured. We fitted longitudinal models examining log-transformed mycoestrogen concentrations in relation to log-transformed hormones, adjusting for covariates. Secondarily, multivariable linear models examined associations at each time point (1st, 2nd, 3rd trimesters, delivery). We additionally considered effect modification by fetal sex. ZEN and its metabolite, α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), were detected in >93% and >75% of urine samples; >80% of placentas had detectable mycoestrogens. Longitudinal models from the full cohort exhibited few significant associations. In sex-stratified analyses, in pregnancies with male fetuses, estrone (E1) and free testosterone (fT) were inversely associated with ZEN (E1 %Δ: -6.68 95%CI: -12.34, -0.65; fT %Δ: -3.22 95%CI: -5.68, -0.70); while α-ZOL was positively associated with E2 (%Δ: 5.61 95%CI: -1.54, 9.85) in pregnancies with female fetuses. In analysis with cord hormones, urinary mycoestrogens were inversely associated with androstenedione (%Δ: 9.15 95%CI: 14.64, -3.30) in both sexes, and placental mycoestrogens were positively associated with cord fT (%Δ: 37.13, 95%CI: 4.86, 79.34) amongst male offspring. Findings support the hypothesis that mycoestrogens act as endocrine disruptors in humans, as in animal models and livestock. Additional work is needed to understand impacts on maternal and child health.

Phenotypic, endocrinological, and metabolic effects of zearalenone exposure and additive effect of heat stress in prepubertal female pigs

Independently, both heat stress (HS) and zearalenone (ZEN) compromise female reproduction, thus the hypothesis that ZEN would affect phenotypic, endocrine, and metabolic parameters in pigs with a synergistic and/or additive impact of HS was investigated. Prepubertal gilts (n = 6-7) were assigned to: thermoneutral (TN) vehicle control (TC; n = 6); TN ZEN (40 μg/kg; TZ; n = 6); pair-fed (PF; n = 6) vehicle control (PC; n = 6); PF ZEN (40 μg/kg; PZ; n = 6); HS vehicle control (HC; n = 7); and HS ZEN (40 μg/kg; HZ; n = 7) and experienced either constant 21.0 ± 0.10 °C (TN and PF) or 35.0 ± 0.2 °C (12 h) and 32.2 ± 0.1 °C (12 h) to induce HS for 7 d. Elevated rectal temperature (P < 0.01) and respiration rate (P < 0.01) confirmed induction of HS. Rectal temperature was decreased (P = 0.03) by ZEN. Heat stress decreased (P < 0.01) feed intake, body weight, and average daily gain, with absence of a ZEN effect (P > 0.22). White blood cells, hematocrit, and lymphocytes decreased (P < 0.04) with HS. Prolactin increased (P < 0.01) in PC and PZ and increased in HZ females (P < 0.01). 17β-estradiol reduced (P < 0.01) in HC and increased in TZ females (P = 0.03). Serum metabolites were altered by both HS and ZEN. Neither HS nor ZEN impacted ovary weight, uterus weight, teat size or vulva area in TN and PF treatments, although ZEN increased vulva area (P = 0.02) in HS females. Thus, ZEN and HS, independently and additively, altered blood composition, impacted the serum endocrine and metabolic profile and increased vulva size in prepubertal females, potentially contributing to infertility.

A Cohort Study Investigating Zearalenone Concentrations and Selected Steroid Levels in Patients with Sigmoid Colorectal Cancer or Colorectal Cancer

THE AIM

In this study was to determine if sigmoid colorectal cancer (SCC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) in women (W) and men (M) is accompanied by zearalenone (ZEN) mycotoxicosis and changes in selected steroid levels.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cohort study was conducted on female and male patients selected from a population based on the presence of SCC or CRC, which was accompanied by the presence or absence (control group) of ZEN in their blood. The control group consisted of 17 patients with symptoms of SCC and CRC, where ZEN and its metabolites were not detected in the peripheral blood. The experimental groups comprised a total of 16 patients with SCC and CRC, where ZEN, but not its metabolites, was detected in their peripheral blood samples.

RESULTS

In groups SCC and CRC, the ZEN levels were very high, in the range from 214 to 289 ng/mL of blood. Considerable variations were observed in the concentrations of steroid hormones. Estradiol (E2) levels ranged from 166.25 (group C) to 325 pg/mL (group CRC) in women and from 98 (group C) to 95.5 pg/mL (group CRC) in men. Progesterone (P4) levels ranged from 12.09 (group C) to 13.64 ng/mL (group SCC) in women and from 6.98 (group CRC) to 12.01 ng/mL (group C) in men.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that post-menopausal women and similarly aged elderly men have a high and individualized demand for estrogen that is relatively effectively met by ZEN, which triggers qualitative changes in estrogen receptors. The shortage of ZEN metabolites (values under the sensitivity of the method) confirmed the high estrogen demand in the studied subjects. The presence or absence of ZEN could have influenced the therapeutic outcomes in the analyzed patients.

Effects of Zearalenone on Production Performance, Egg Quality, Ovarian Function and Gut Microbiota of Laying Hens

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a ubiquitous contaminant in poultry feed, since ZEN and its metabolites can interfere with estrogen function and affect the reproductive ability of animals. The estrogen-like effect of ZEN on mammal is widely reported, while little information is available, regarding the effect of relatively low dose of ZEN on estrogen function and production performance of laying hens, and the relationship between them. This work was aimed to investigate the effects of ZEN on the production performance, egg quality, ovarian function and gut microbiota of laying hens. A total of 96 Hy-line brown laying hens aged 25-week were randomly divided into 3 groups including basal diet group (BD group), basal diet supplemented with 250 μg/kg (250 μg/kg ZEN group) and 750 μg/kg (750 μg/kg ZEN group) ZEN group. Here, 750 μg/kg ZEN resulted in a significant increase in the feed conversion ratio (FCR) (g feed/g egg) (p < 0.05), a decrease in the egg production (p > 0.05), albumen height and Haugh unit (p > 0.05), compared to the BD group. The serum Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels significantly decreased in ZEN supplemented groups (p < 0.05). Serum Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Progesterone (P) levels in the 750 μg/kg ZEN group were significantly lower than those in the BD group (p < 0.05). 16S rRNA sequencing indicated that ZEN reduced cecum microbial diversity (p < 0.05) and altered gut microbiota composition. In contrast to 250 μg/kg ZEN, 750 μg/kg ZEN had more dramatic effects on the gut microbiota function. Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed negative correlations between the dominant bacteria of the 750 μg/kg ZEN group and the production performance, egg quality and ovarian function of hens. Overall, ZEN was shown to exert a detrimental effect on production performance, egg quality and ovarian function of laying hens in this study. Moreover, alterations in the composition and function of the gut microbiota induced by ZEN may be involved in the adverse effects of ZEN on laying hens.

Carry-Over of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites to Intestinal Tissues and the Expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the Colon of Gilts before Puberty

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether low doses of zearalenone (ZEN) affect the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to intestinal tissues and the expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the large intestine. Prepubertal gilts (with a BW of up to 14.5 kg) were exposed in group ZEN to daily ZEN5 doses of 5 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN10, 10 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN15, 15 μg/kg BW (n = 15); or were administered a placebo (group C, n = 15) throughout the experiment. After euthanasia, tissues were sampled on exposure days 7, 21, and 42 (D1, D2, and D3, respectively). The results confirmed that the administered ZEN doses (LOAEL, NOAEL, and MABEL) were appropriate to reliably assess the carry-over of ZEN. Based on the observations made during 42 days of exposure to pure ZEN, it can be hypothesized that all mycotoxins (ZEN, α-zearalenol, and β-zearalenol) contribute to a balance between intestinal cells and the expression of selected genes encoding enzymes that participate in biotransformation processes in the large intestine; modulate feminization processes in prepubertal gilts; and elicit flexible, adaptive responses of the macroorganism to mycotoxin exposure at the analyzed doses.

Zearalenone toxicosis on reproduction as estrogen receptor selective modulator and alleviation of zearalenone biodegradative agent in pregnant sows

BACKGROUND

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a resorcylic acid lactone derivative derived from various Fusarium species that are widely found in food and feeds. The molecular structure of ZEA resembles that of the mammalian hormone 17β-oestradiol, thus zearalenone and its metabolites are known to compete with endogenous hormones for estrogen receptors binding sites and to activate transcription of oestrogen-responsive genes. However, the effect of long-term low-dose ZEA exposure on the reproductive response to Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G culture for first-parity gilts has not yet been investigated. This study was conducted to investigate the toxic effects of ZEA as an estrogen receptor selective modulator and the alleviating effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G cultures as ZEA biodegraders in pregnant sows during their first parity.

RESULTS

A total of 80 first-parity gilts (Yorkshire × Landrace) were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments during gestation: CO (positive control); MO (negative control, 246 μg ZEA/kg diet); COA (CO + B. subtilis ANSB01G culture with 2 × 10⁹ CFU/kg diet); MOA (MO + B. subtilis ANSB01G culture with 2 × 10⁹ CFU/kg diet). There were 20 replications per treatment with one gilt per replicate. Feeding low-dose ZEA naturally contaminated diets disordered most of reproductive hormones secretion and affected estrogen receptor-α and estrogen receptor-β concentrations in serum and specific organs and led to moderate histopathological changes of gilts, but did not cause significant detrimental effects on reproductive performance. The addition of Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G culture to the diet can effectively relieve the competence of ZEA to estrogen receptor and the disturbance of reproductive hormones secretion, and then ameliorate toxicosis of ZEA in gilts.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our study investigated the effects of feeding low-dose ZEA on reproduction in pregnant sows during their first parity. Feeding low-dose ZEA could modulate estrogen receptor-α and -β concentrations in specific organs, cause disturbance of reproductive hormones and vulva swelling, and damage organ histopathology and up-regulate apoptosis in sow models. Diet with Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G alleviated negative effects of the ZEA on gilts to some extent.

Comparison of Ameliorative Effects between Probiotic and Biodegradable Bacillus subtilis on Zearalenone Toxicosis in Gilts

This study was conducted to compare the potential ameliorative effects between probiotic Bacillus subtilis and biodegradable Bacillus subtilis on zearalenone (ZEN) toxicosis in gilts. Thirty-six Landrace×Yorkshire gilts (average BW = 64 kg) were randomly divided into four groups: (1) Normal control diet group (NC) fed the basal diet containing few ZEN (17.5 μg/kg); (2) ZEN contaminated group (ZC) fed the contaminated diet containing an exceeded limit dose of ZEN (about 300 μg/kg); (3) Probiotic agent group (PB) fed the ZC diet with added 5 × 10⁹ CFU/kg of probiotic Bacillus subtilis ANSB010; (4) Biodegradable agent group (DA) fed the ZC diet with added 5 × 10⁹ CFU/kg of biodegradable Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G. Results showed that Bacillus subtilis ANSB010 and ANSB01G isolated from broiler intestinal chyme had similar inhibitory activities against common pathogenic bacteria. In addition, the feed conversion ratio and the vulva size in DA group were significantly lower than ZC group (p < 0.05). The levels of IgG, IgM, IL-2 and TNFα in the ZC group were significantly higher than PB and DA groups (p < 0.05). The levels of estradiol and prolactin in the ZC group was significantly higher than those of the NC and DA groups (p < 0.05). Additionally, the residual ZEN in the feces of the ZC and PB groups were higher than those of the NC and DA groups (p < 0.05). In summary, the ZEN-contaminated diet had a damaging impact on growth performance, plasma immune function and hormone secretion of gilts. Although probiotic and biodegradable Bacillus subtilis have similar antimicrobial capacities, only biodegradable Bacillus subtilis could eliminate these negative effects through its biodegradable property to ZEN.

Efficacy of lactic acid bacteria supplementation against Fusarium graminearum growth in vitro and inhibition of Zearalenone causing inflammation and oxidative stress in vivo

Fusarium graminearum invasion and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin contamination are considered the most global threat to food and feed. This study investigates the effect Lactobacillus plantarum MON03 viable cells (LPVC) and LP free cells supernatant (LPFCS) against Fusarium graminearum growth and ZEN production in vitro and evaluates if treatment with LP viable cells can counteract the negative effect of ZEN on inflammation and oxidative stress in mesenteric lymph nodes and serum biochemical parameters in mice. For the in vitro study, 7 days of LPVC, LPFCS and F. graminearum co-incubation at different concentrations was done in order to determine the antifungal activity and ZEN- production inhibition. Regarding the in vivo study, Balb/c mice were treated as following: Control, ZEN group, LP group and ZEN + LP group for 30 days. In vitro, LPVC showed an excellent antifungal activity after 7 days of co-incubation (10³ CFU/ml). LPVC was succeeded also to inhibit ZEN production by the fungi. In vivo, ZEN has shown an important oxidative damage. As a result of the exposure to ZEN, an increase cytokines, as effectors of an inflammatory response, were observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) of intoxicated mice. In parallel, a serum biochemical change was also observed. LPVC induced a reduction of ZEN-induced oxidative stress and counteracts also the biochemical parameters damage and the inflammatory markers increased by ZEN. LPVC can be valorized as an anti-cating agent in the vitro and in the gastro-intestinal tract to decrease ZEN-toxic effects.

The Effect of 42-Day Exposure to a Low Deoxynivalenol Dose on the Immunohistochemical Expression of Intestinal ERs and the Activation of CYP1A1 and GSTP1 Genes in the Large Intestine of Pre-pubertal Gilts

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin that contaminates various plant materials. Exposure to DON can disrupt hormonal homeostasis, decrease body weight gains and modulate the immune system in pigs. It can also cause diarrhea, vomiting, leukocytosis, hemorrhaging or even death. Prolonged exposure to low doses of DON can have serious health implications in mammals. This is the first in vivo study to show that per os administration of low DON doses probably contributes to specific dysfunctions in steroidogenesis processes by inducing the immunohistochemical expression of estrogen receptors alpha (ERα) in the entire gastrointestinal tract in strongly stained cells (3 points) and estrogen receptors beta (ERβ), but only in both investigated segments of the duodenum in pre-pubertal gilts. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether a NOAEL dose of DON (12 μg DON/kg BW) administered per os over a period of 42 days induces changes in the immunohistochemical expression of ER in different intestinal segments and the transcriptional activation of CYP1A1 and GSTP1 genes in the large intestine of pre-pubertal gilts. This is the first report to demonstrate the expression of ER, in particular ERβ, with the associated consequences. The expression of ER was accompanied by considerable variations in the activation of CYP1A1 and GSTP1 genes, but it supported the maintenance of a stable consensus between the degree of mycotoxin exposure and the detoxifying effect in pre-pubertal gilts.

Concentration of Zearalenone, Alpha-Zearalenol and Beta-Zearalenol in the Myocardium and the Results of Isometric Analyses of the Coronary Artery in Prepubertal Gilts

The carry-over of zearalenone (ZEN) to the myocardium and its effects on coronary vascular reactivity in vivo have not been addressed in the literature to date. Therefore, the objective of this study was to verify the hypothesis that low ZEN doses (MABEL, NOAEL and LOAEL) administered per os to prepubertal gilts for 21 days affect the accumulation of ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL in the myocardium and the reactivity of the porcine coronary arteries to vasoconstrictors: acetylcholine, potassium chloride and vasodilator sodium nitroprusside. The contractile response to acetylcholine in the presence of a cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor, indomethacin and / or an endothelial nitric oxide synthase (e-NOS) inhibitor, L-NAME was also studied. The results of this study indicate that the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to the myocardium is a highly individualized process that occurs even at very low mycotoxin concentrations. The concentrations of the accumulated ZEN metabolites are inversely proportional to each other due to biotransformation processes. The levels of vasoconstrictors, acetylcholine and potassium chloride, were examined in the left anterior descending branch of the porcine coronary artery after oral administration of ZEN. The LOAEL dose clearly decreased vasoconstriction in response to both potassium chloride and acetylcholine (P < 0.05 for all values) and increased vasodilation in the presence of sodium nitroprusside (P = 0.021). The NOAEL dose significantly increased vasoconstriction caused by acetylcholine (P < 0.04), whereas the MABEL dose did not cause significant changes in the vascular response. Unlike higher doses of ZEN, 5 μg/kg had no negative influence on the vascular system.

Impact of Fusarium-Derived Mycoestrogens on Female Reproduction: A Systematic Review

Contamination of the world's food supply and animal feed with mycotoxins is a growing concern as global temperatures rise and promote the growth of fungus. Zearalenone (ZEN), an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, is a common contaminant of cereal grains and has also been detected at lower levels in meat, milk, and spices. ZEN's synthetic derivative, zeranol, is used as a growth promoter in United States (US) and Canadian beef production. Experimental research suggests that ZEN and zeranol disrupt the endocrine and reproductive systems, leading to infertility, polycystic ovarian syndrome-like phenotypes, pregnancy loss, and low birth weight. With widespread human dietary exposure and growing experimental evidence of endocrine-disrupting properties, a comprehensive review of the impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites on the female reproductive system is warranted. The objective of this systematic review was to summarize the in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological literature and evaluate the potential impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites (commonly referred to as mycoestrogens) on female reproductive outcomes. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO registration CRD42020166469) of the literature (2000-2020) following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The data sources were primary literature published in English obtained from searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. The ToxR tool was applied to assess risk of bias. In vitro and in vivo studies (n = 104) were identified and, overall, evidence consistently supported adverse effects of mycoestrogens on physiological processes, organs, and tissues associated with female reproduction. In non-pregnant animals, mycoestrogens alter follicular profiles in the ovary, disrupt estrus cycling, and increase myometrium thickness. Furthermore, during pregnancy, mycoestrogen exposure contributes to placental hemorrhage, stillbirth, and impaired fetal growth. No epidemiological studies fitting the inclusion criteria were identified.

Transmission of Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, and Their Derivatives from Sows to Piglets during Lactation

Sows were fed naturally contaminated diets containing: (i) 100 ppb zearalenone (ZEN) one week before farrowing and during the lactation period (at 26 days), (ii) 100 ppb ZEN one week before farrowing and 300 ppb ZEN during the lactation period, or (iii) 300 ppb ZEN one week before farrowing and during the lactation period. All diets contained 250 ppb deoxynivalenol (DON). The highest levels of ZEN, α-ZEL, or β-ZEL were observed in the serum of sows fed 300 ppb ZEN before farrowing and during lactation. However, only α-ZEL was significantly increased in the colostrum and milk of these sows. Sows fed the 300 ppb ZEN during the complete trial presented a significant decrease in backfat thickness before farrowing. This effect was accompanied by a decrease in serum leptin levels. These sows also presented a decrease in estradiol levels and this effect was observed in their piglets exposed during lactation, which presented increased glucagon-like peptide 1, but no changes in serum levels of ZEN, α-ZEL, or β-ZEL. Although all sows were fed the same levels of DON, the serum levels of DON and de-epoxy-DON were increased only in the serum of piglets from the sows fed a diet with the highest ZEN levels during the whole experimental period. Moreover, these piglets presented gut inflammation, as indicated by significantly increased calprotectin levels in their serum.

The Presence of Mycotoxins in Feed and Their Influence on Animal Health

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi [...].

The Effect of Zearalenone on the Cytokine Environment, Oxidoreductive Balance and Metabolism in Porcine Ileal Peyer's Patches

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of zearalenone (ZEN), administered per os to gilts at doses equivalent to 50%, 100%, and 150% of no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) values for 14, 28, and 42 days during weaning, on changes in the parameters of the oxidoreductive balance, cytokine secretion, and basal metabolism in ileal Payer’s patches. Immunoenzymatic ELISA tests and biochemical methods were used to measure the concentrations of interleukin 1α, interleukin 1β, interleukin 12/23p40, interleukin 2, interferon γ, interleukin 4, interleukin 6, interleukin 8, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 10, transforming growth factor β, malondialdehyde, sulfhydryl groups, fructose, glucose, and proline, as well as the activity of peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase. The study demonstrated that ZEN doses corresponding to 50%, 100%, and 150% of NOAEL values, i.e., 5 µg, 10 µg, and 15 µg ZEN/kg BW, respectively, have proinflammatory properties, exacerbate oxidative stress responses, and disrupt basal metabolism in ileal Payer’s patches in gilts.