1
|
Reid N, Reyne MI, O'Neill W, Greer B, He Q, Burdekin O, McGrath JW, Elliott CT. Unprecedented Harmful algal bloom in the UK and Ireland's largest lake associated with gastrointestinal bacteria, microcystins and anabaenopeptins presenting an environmental and public health risk. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 190:108934. [PMID: 39106632 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 07/31/2024] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024]
Abstract
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) are outbreaks of aquatic toxic microalgae emerging as a global problem driven by nutrient enrichment, global climate change and invasive species. We uniquely describe a HAB of unprecedented duration, extent and magnitude during 2023 in Lough Neagh; the UK and Ireland's largest freshwater lake, using an unparalleled combination of satellite imagery, nutrient analysis, 16S rRNA gene sequencing and cyanotoxin profiling. The causative agent Microcystis aeruginosa accounted for over a third of DNA in water samples though common bacterioplankton species also bloomed. Water phosphate levels were hypertrophic and drove local algal biomass. The HAB pervaded the entire ecosystem with algal mats accumulating around jetties, marinas and lock gates. Over 80 % of bacterial DNA isolated from algal mat samples consisted of species associated with wildfowl or livestock faeces and human-effluent wastewater including 13 potential pathogens that can cause serious human illness including: E. coli, Salmonella, Enterobacter and Clostridium among others. Ten microcystins, nodularin and two anabaenopeptin toxins were confirmed as present (with a further microcystin and four anabaenopeptins suspected), with MC-RR and -LR in high concentrations at some locations (1,137-18,493 μg/L) with MC-LR exceeding World Health Organisation (WHO) recreational exposure guidelines in all algal mats sampled. This is the first detection of anabaenopeptins in any waterbody on the island of Ireland. Notwithstanding the ecological impacts, this HAB represented an environmental and public health risk, curtailing recreational activities in-and-around the lake and damaging local businesses. Reducing agricultural runoff and discharge from human-effluent wastewater treatment to manage nutrient loading, and the public health risk, should be the top priority of stakeholders, especially government. Key recommendations include Nature-based Solutions that avoid conflict with the productivity and profitability of the farming sector enhancing sustainability. We hope this stimulates real-world action to resolve the problems besetting this internationally important ecosystem.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil Reid
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | - Marina I Reyne
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - William O'Neill
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Brett Greer
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK; International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Qiqi He
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK; International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Oliver Burdekin
- Department for Continuing Education, University of Oxford, Rewley House, 1 Wellington Square, Oxford OX1 2JA, UK
| | - John W McGrath
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Chris T Elliott
- Institute of Global Food Security (IGFS), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, Northern Ireland, UK; International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Plata-Calzado C, Prieto AI, Cameán AM, Jos A. Analytical Methods for Anatoxin-a Determination: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:198. [PMID: 38668623 PMCID: PMC11053625 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (ATX-a) is a potent neurotoxin produced by several species of cyanobacteria whose exposure can have direct consequences, including neurological disorders and death. The increasing prevalence of harmful cyanobacterial blooms makes the detection and reliable assessment of ATX-a levels essential to prevent the risk associated with public health. Therefore, the aim of this review is to compile the analytical methods developed to date for the detection and quantification of ATX-a levels alone and in mixtures with other cyanotoxins and their suitability. A classification of the analytical methods available is fundamental to make an appropriate choice according to the type of sample, the equipment available, and the required sensitivity and specificity for each specific purpose. The most widely used detection technique for the quantification of this toxin is liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The analytical methods reviewed herein focus mainly on water and cyanobacterial samples, so the need for validated analytical methods in more complex matrices (vegetables and fish) for the determination of ATX-a to assess dietary exposure to this toxin is evidenced. There is currently a trend towards the validation of multitoxin methods as opposed to single-ATX-a determination methods, which corresponds to the real situation of cyanotoxins' confluence in nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ana I. Prieto
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain; (C.P.-C.); (A.M.C.); (A.J.)
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rocha MF, Vieira Magalhães-Ghiotto GA, Bergamasco R, Gomes RG. Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in the environment and water intakes: Reports, diversity of congeners, detection by mass spectrometry and their impact on health. Toxicon 2024; 238:107589. [PMID: 38160739 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are aquatic microorganisms of high interest for research due to the production of secondary metabolites, among which the most popular are cyanotoxins, responsible for causing severe poisoning in humans and animals through ingestion or contact with contaminated water bodies. Monitoring the number of cyanobacteria in water and concentrations of secreted cyanotoxins with the aid of sensitive and reliable methods is considered the primary action for evaluating potentially toxic blooms. There is a great diversity of methods to detect and identify these types of micro contaminants in water, differing by the degree of sophistication and information provided. Mass Spectrometry stands out for its accuracy and sensitivity in identifying toxins, making it possible to identify and characterize toxins produced by individual species of cyanobacteria, in low quantities. In this review, we seek to update some information about cyanobacterial peptides, their effects on biological systems, and the importance of the main Mass Spectrometry methods used for detection, extraction, identification and monitoring of cyanotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Fernandes Rocha
- Department of Biotechnology, Genetics and Cell Biology, Biological Sciences Center, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil.
| | - Grace Anne Vieira Magalhães-Ghiotto
- Department of Biotechnology, Genetics and Cell Biology, Biological Sciences Center, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Rosângela Bergamasco
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Technology Center, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Raquel Guttierres Gomes
- Department of Food Engineering, Technology Center, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Jaric S, Bajaj A, Vukic V, Gadjanski I, Abdulhalim I, Bobrinetskiy I. Label-Free Direct Detection of Cylindrospermopsin via Graphene-Enhanced Surface Plasmon Resonance Aptasensor. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050326. [PMID: 37235360 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we report a novel method for the label-free detection of cyanotoxin molecules based on a direct assay utilizing a graphene-modified surface plasmon resonance (SPR) aptasensor. Molecular dynamic simulation of the aptamer's interaction with cylindrospermopsin (CYN) reveals the strongest binding sites between C18-C26 pairs. To modify the SPR sensor, the wet transfer method of CVD monolayer graphene was used. For the first time, we report the use of graphene functionalized by an aptamer as a bioreceptor in conjunction with SPR for the detection of CYN. In a direct assay with an anti-CYN aptamer, we demonstrated a noticeable change in the optical signal in response to the concentrations far below the maximum tolerable level of 1 µg/L and high specificity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Jaric
- BioSense Institute-Research and Development Institute for Information Technologies in Biosystems, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Aabha Bajaj
- Department of Electro-Optics and Photonics Engineering, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ilse-Katz Institute for Nano-Scale Science and Technology, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Vladimir Vukic
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ivana Gadjanski
- BioSense Institute-Research and Development Institute for Information Technologies in Biosystems, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ibrahim Abdulhalim
- Department of Electro-Optics and Photonics Engineering, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ilse-Katz Institute for Nano-Scale Science and Technology, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
- Photonicsys Ltd., 54 Wahat Alsalam-Neveh Shalom, Ibrahim 9976100, Israel
| | - Ivan Bobrinetskiy
- BioSense Institute-Research and Development Institute for Information Technologies in Biosystems, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Saleem F, Jiang JL, Atrache R, Paschos A, Edge TA, Schellhorn HE. Cyanobacterial Algal Bloom Monitoring: Molecular Methods and Technologies for Freshwater Ecosystems. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11040851. [PMID: 37110273 PMCID: PMC10144707 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11040851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can accumulate to form harmful algal blooms (HABs) on the surface of freshwater ecosystems under eutrophic conditions. Extensive HAB events can threaten local wildlife, public health, and the utilization of recreational waters. For the detection/quantification of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins, both the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and Health Canada increasingly indicate that molecular methods can be useful. However, each molecular detection method has specific advantages and limitations for monitoring HABs in recreational water ecosystems. Rapidly developing modern technologies, including satellite imaging, biosensors, and machine learning/artificial intelligence, can be integrated with standard/conventional methods to overcome the limitations associated with traditional cyanobacterial detection methodology. We examine advances in cyanobacterial cell lysis methodology and conventional/modern molecular detection methods, including imaging techniques, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)/DNA sequencing, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), mass spectrometry, remote sensing, and machine learning/AI-based prediction models. This review focuses specifically on methodologies likely to be employed for recreational water ecosystems, especially in the Great Lakes region of North America.
Collapse
|
6
|
Tang YY, Chen JS, Liu XP, Mao CJ, Jin BK. An ultrasensitive photoelectrochemical aptasensor based on ZnIn2S4/CdSe heterojunction for the detection of microcystine-LR. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
7
|
León C, Úsuga O, Peñuela G. Statistical model applied in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the relationships between environmental variables and cyanotoxin concentrations in tropical reservoirs. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:147. [PMID: 35122535 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09739-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This article presents the use of generalized additive model for location scale and shape (GAMLSS) in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the relationships between environmental parameters and cyanotoxins in the tropical reservoirs of Colombia. The physicochemical parameters were evaluated on each of the cyanotoxins detected with levels high by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. The models showed a relation between cyanotoxins and the nutrients as soluble total Kjeldahl nitrogen (NTK), soluble phosphorus (soluble P), total phosphorus (total P), and nitrates (NO3-), among other nutrients that are necessary for the growth of organisms that produce toxins. This model confirms that the NTK and soluble P variables favor an increase in the concentration of MC-LR and MC-YR cyanotoxins in the Abreo Malpaso reservoir. The variables NO3- and dissolved O2 contribute to a higher concentration of MC-LR, MC-YR, and MC-ADRR cyanotoxins in the Peñol reservoir. Finally, the variable total P favors the increase in the concentration of MC-LR cyanotoxin and the variable dissolved O2 favors the increase in the concentration of cyanotoxin [D-Asp3, (E)-Dhb7] -MC-RR in the Playas reservoir.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina León
- Grupo GDCON, Facultad de Ingeniería, Sede de Investigación Universitaria (SIU), Universidad de Antioquia, 53 # 61-30, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Olga Úsuga
- Grupo INCAS, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, 70 # 52-21, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Gustavo Peñuela
- Grupo GDCON, Facultad de Ingeniería, Sede de Investigación Universitaria (SIU), Universidad de Antioquia, 53 # 61-30, Medellin, Colombia.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Multiclass cyanotoxin analysis in reservoir waters: Tandem solid-phase extraction followed by zwitterionic hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Talanta 2022; 237:122929. [PMID: 34736666 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The presence of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in all water bodies, including ocean water and fresh water sources, represents a risk for human health as eutrophication and climate change are enhancing their level of proliferation. For risk assessment and studies on occurrence, the development of reliable and sensitive analytical approaches able to cover a wide range of cyanotoxins is essential. This work describes the development of an HILIC-MS/MS multiclass method for the simultaneous analysis of eight cyanotoxins in reservoir water samples belonging to three different classes according to their chemical structure: cyclic peptides (microcystin-LR, microcystin-RR and nodularin), alkaloids (cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a) and three non-protein amino acids isomers such as β-methylamino-L-alanine, 2,4-diaminobutyric acid and N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine). A SeQuant ZIC-HILIC column was employed to achieve the chromatographic separation in less than 12 min. Previously, a novel sample treatment based on a tandem solid-phase extraction (SPE) system using mixed cation exchange (MCX) and Strata-X cartridges was investigated with the aim of extracting and preconcentrating this chemically diverse group of cyanotoxins. The Strata-X cartridge, which was configured first in the line of sample flow, retained the low polar compounds and the MCX cartridge, which was at the bottom of the dual system, retained mainly the non-protein amino acids. The optimization procedure highlighted the importance of sample ion content for the recoveries of some analytes such as the isomers β-N-methylamino-L-alanine and 2-4-diaminobutyric acid. Method validation was carried out in terms of linearity, limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ), recoveries, matrix effect and precision in terms of repeatability and intermediate precision. This work represents the first analytical method for the simultaneous analysis of these multiclass cyanotoxins in reservoir water samples, achieving LOQs in the very low range of 7·10-3 - 0.1 μg L-1. Despite high recoveries obtained at the LOQ concentration levels (101.0-70.9%), relative standard deviations lower than 17.5% were achieved.
Collapse
|
9
|
A data independent acquisition all ion fragmentation mode tool for the suspect screening of natural toxins in surface water. MethodsX 2021; 8:101286. [PMID: 34434806 PMCID: PMC8374265 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2021.101286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Among natural freshwater pollutants, cyanotoxins, mycotoxins, and phytotoxins are the most important and less studied. Their identification in surface water is challenging especially cause of the lack of standards and established analytical parameters. Most target methods focus one or a single group of compounds with similar characteristics. Here we present an AIF fast method for the tentative identification of natural toxins in water. Respect to the previous method [1], it offers higher performances for the acquisition of unknown compounds at low levels for higher number of analytes. The key aspects of the method are: • The qualitative screening DIA-AIF workflow using Q Exactive Orbitrap. Both targeted and suspect screening bases have been combined with online databases and suspect list to retrieve candidates as suspect natural toxins and their metabolites or degradation products. • The in-silico analysis of mass spectrums allowed a fast structural characterization. • The workflow has been finally applied to real samples coming from the Czech Republic, Italy, and Spain allowing the determination of 17 suspect natural toxins, 4 of them confirmed. None toxin passed the limit of 1 µg/L taken from the legislation applied for microcystin LR and arbitrarily extended to all toxins.
Collapse
|
10
|
Yang Y, Yu G, Chen Y, Jia N, Li R. Four decades of progress in cylindrospermopsin research: The ins and outs of a potent cyanotoxin. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 406:124653. [PMID: 33321325 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN), a toxic metabolite from cyanobacteria, is of particular concern due to its cosmopolitan occurrence, aquatic bioaccumulation, and multi-organ toxicity. CYN is the second most often recorded cyanotoxin worldwide, and cases of human morbidity and animal mortality are associated with ingestion of CYN contaminated water. The toxin poses a great challenge for drinking water treatment plants and public health authorities. CYN, with the major toxicity manifested in the liver, is cytotoxic, genotoxic, immunotoxic, neurotoxic and may be carcinogenic. Adverse effects are also reported for endocrine and developmental processes. We present a comprehensive review of CYN over the past four decades since its first reported poisoning event, highlighting its global occurrence, biosynthesis, toxicology, removal, and monitoring. In addition, current data gaps are identified, and future directions for CYN research are outlined. This review is beneficial for understanding the ins and outs of this environmental pollutant, and for robustly assessing health hazards posed by CYN exposure to humans and other organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Yang
- Affiliated Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Research of Oral Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510182, China
| | - Gongliang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
| | - Youxin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
| | - Nannan Jia
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Renhui Li
- College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325035, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Massey IY, Wu P, Wei J, Luo J, Ding P, Wei H, Yang F. A Mini-Review on Detection Methods of Microcystins. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E641. [PMID: 33020400 PMCID: PMC7601875 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CyanoHABs) produce microcystins (MCs) which are associated with animal and human hepatotoxicity. Over 270 variants of MC exist. MCs have been continually studied due of their toxic consequences. Monitoring water quality to assess the presence of MCs is of utmost importance although it is often difficult because CyanoHABs may generate multiple MC variants, and their low concentration in water. To effectively manage and control these toxins and prevent their health risks, sensitive, fast, and reliable methods capable of detecting MCs are required. This paper aims to review the three main analytical methods used to detect MCs ranging from biological (mouse bioassay), biochemical (protein phosphatase inhibition assay and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay), and chemical (high performance liquid chromatography, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, high performance capillary electrophoresis, and gas chromatography), as well as the newly emerging biosensor methods. In addition, the current state of these methods regarding their novel development and usage, as well as merits and limitations are presented. Finally, this paper also provides recommendations and future research directions towards method application and improvement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Yaw Massey
- Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (I.Y.M.); (P.W.); (J.W.); (J.L.); (P.D.)
| | - Pian Wu
- Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (I.Y.M.); (P.W.); (J.W.); (J.L.); (P.D.)
| | - Jia Wei
- Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (I.Y.M.); (P.W.); (J.W.); (J.L.); (P.D.)
| | - Jiayou Luo
- Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (I.Y.M.); (P.W.); (J.W.); (J.L.); (P.D.)
| | - Ping Ding
- Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (I.Y.M.); (P.W.); (J.W.); (J.L.); (P.D.)
| | - Haiyan Wei
- Department of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Toxicology, School of Public Health, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Fei Yang
- Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (I.Y.M.); (P.W.); (J.W.); (J.L.); (P.D.)
- School of Public Health, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
| |
Collapse
|