Bee Venom Components as Therapeutic Tools against Prostate Cancer

Hybrid bio-nanoporous peptide loaded-polymer platforms with anticancer and antibacterial activities

In this study, hybrid bio-nanoporous peptides loaded onto poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-butylacrylate) (pNIPAM-co-BA) coatings were designed and obtained via matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) technique. The incorporation of cationic peptides magainin (MG) and melittin (Mel) and their combination was tailored to target synergistic anticancer and antibacterial activities with low toxicity on normal mammalian cells. Atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as well as contact angle and surface energy measurements revealed the successful and functional incorporation of both the peptides within porous polymeric nanolayers as well as surface modifications (i.e. variation in the pore size diameter, surface roughness, and wettability) after Mel, MG or Mel-MG incorporation compared to pNIPAM-co-BA. In vitro testing revealed the impairment of biofilm formation on all the hybrid coatings while testing with S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Moreover, MG was shown to modulate the effect of Mel in the combined Mel-MG extract formulation released via pNIPAM-platforms, thus significantly reducing cancer cell proliferation through apoptosis/necrosis as revealed by flow cytometry analysis performed in vitro on HEK293T, A375, B16F1 and B16F10 cells. To the best of our knowledge, Mel-MG combination entrapped in the pNIPAM-co-BA copolymer has not yet been reported as a new promising candidate with anticancer and antibacterial properties for improved utility in the biomedical field. Mel-MG incorporation compared to pNIPAM-co-BA in in vitro testing revealed the impairment of biofilm formation in all the hybrid formulations.

Natural Sources of Therapeutic Agents Used in Skin Conditions

Skin conditions are numerous and often have a major impact on patients' quality of life, and effective and safe treatment is very important. The conventional drugs used for skin diseases are usually corticosteroids and antimicrobial products that can induce various side effects, especially with long-term use, which is why researchers are studying alternatives, especially biologically active natural products. Three products caught our attention: bee venom (BV), due to reported experimental results showing anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, antimycotic, and anticancer effects, Ficus carica (FC) due to its demonstrated antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory action, and finally Geranium essential oil (GEO), with proven antifungal, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Following a review of the literature, we produced this paper, which presents a review of the potential therapeutic applications of the three products in combating various skin conditions and for skin care, because BV, FC, and GEO have common pharmacological actions (anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant). We also focused on studying the safety of the topical use of BV, FC, and GEO, and new approaches to this. This paper presents the use of these natural therapeutic agents to treat patients with conditions such as vitiligo, melasma, and melanoma, as well as their use in treating dermatological conditions in patients with diabetes.

From oncolytic peptides to oncolytic polymers: A new paradigm for oncotherapy

Traditional cancer therapy methods, especially those directed against specific intracellular targets or signaling pathways, are not powerful enough to overcome tumor heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. Oncolytic peptides that can induce membrane lysis-mediated cancer cell death and subsequent anticancer immune responses, has provided a new paradigm for cancer therapy. However, the clinical application of oncolytic peptides is always limited by some factors such as unsatisfactory bio-distribution, poor stability, and off-target toxicity. To overcome these limitations, oncolytic polymers stand out as prospective therapeutic materials owing to their high stability, chemical versatility, and scalable production capacity, which has the potential to drive a revolution in cancer treatment. This review provides an overview of the mechanism and structure-activity relationship of oncolytic peptides. Then the oncolytic peptides-mediated combination therapy and the nano-delivery strategies for oncolytic peptides are summarized. Emphatically, the current research progress of oncolytic polymers has been highlighted. Lastly, the challenges and prospects in the development of oncolytic polymers are discussed.

Hosts and Heterologous Expression Strategies of Recombinant Toxins for Therapeutic Purposes

The production of therapeutic recombinant toxins requires careful host cell selection. Bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells are common choices, but no universal solution exists. Achieving the delicate balance in toxin production is crucial due to potential self-intoxication. Recombinant toxins from various sources find applications in antimicrobials, biotechnology, cancer drugs, and vaccines. "Toxin-based therapy" targets diseased cells using three strategies. Targeted cancer therapy, like antibody-toxin conjugates, fusion toxins, or "suicide gene therapy", can selectively eliminate cancer cells, leaving healthy cells unharmed. Notable toxins from various biological sources may be used as full-length toxins, as plant (saporin) or animal (melittin) toxins, or as isolated domains that are typical of bacterial toxins, including Pseudomonas Exotoxin A (PE) and diphtheria toxin (DT). This paper outlines toxin expression methods and system advantages and disadvantages, emphasizing host cell selection's critical role.

Melittin inhibits tumor cell migration and enhances cisplatin sensitivity by suppressing IL-17 signaling pathway gene LCN2 in castration-resistant prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Melittin is a small molecule polypeptide extracted from the abdominal cavity of bees, which is used to treat inflammatory diseases and relieve pain. However, the antitumor effect of melittin and its mechanisms remain unclear, especially in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

METHODS

Through CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, wound healing assay and Transwell migration assay, we explored the effect of melittin on CRPC cell lines. In addition, with microarray analysis, gene ontology analysis and kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes analysis, this study identified key genes and signaling pathways that influence the growth of PC-3 cells. Meanwhile, the effect of melittin on CRPC was also verified through subcutaneous tumor formation experiments. Finally, we also tested the relevant indicators of human prostate cancer (PCa) specimens through immunohistochemistry and H＆E stating.

RESULTS

Here, melittin was verified to inhibit the cell proliferation and migration of CPRC. Moreover, RNA-sequence analysis demonstrated that Interleukin-17 (IL-17) signaling pathway gene Lipocalin-2 (LCN2) was downregulated by melittin treatment in CRPC. Further investigation revealed that overexpression of LCN2 was able to rescue tumor suppression and cisplatin sensitivity which melittin mediated. Interestingly, the expression of LCN2 is highly related to metastasis in PCa.

CONCLUSIONS

In brief, our study indicates that LCN2 plays an oncogenic role in CRPC and melittin may be selected as an attractive candidate for CRPC therapy.

Can Bee Venom Be Used as Anticancer Agent in Modern Medicine?

Honey bee venom in its composition contains many biologically active peptides and enzymes that are effective in the fight against diseases of various etiologies. The history of the use of bee venom for medicinal purposes dates back thousands of years. There are many reports in the literature on the pharmacological properties of bee venom and/or its main components, e.g., anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial or neuroprotective properties. In addition, both crude venom and melittin exhibit cytotoxic activity against a wide range of tumor cells, with significant anti-metastatic activity in pre-clinical studies. Due to the constantly increasing incidence of cancer, the development of new therapeutic strategies in oncology is a particular challenge for modern medicine. A review paper discusses the various properties of bee venom with an emphasis on its anticancer properties. For this purpose, the PubMed database was searched, and publications related to "bee", "venom", "cancer" from the last 10 years were selected.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Properties of Honey Bee Venom

Due to its great medical and pharmaceutical importance, honey bee venom is considered to be well characterized both chemically and in terms of biomedical activity. However, this study shows that our knowledge of the composition and antimicrobial properties of Apis mellifera venom is incomplete. In this work, the composition of volatile and extractive components of dry and fresh bee venom (BV) was determined by GC-MS, as well as antimicrobial activity against seven types of pathogenic microorganisms. One-hundred and forty-nine organic C₁-C₁₉ compounds of different classes were found in the volatile secretions of the studied BV samples. One-hundred and fifty-two organic C₂-C₃₆ compounds were registered in ether extracts, and 201 compounds were identified in methanol extracts. More than half of these compounds are new to BV. In microbiological tests involving four species of pathogenic Gram-positive and two species of Gram-negative bacteria, as well as one species of pathogenic fungi, the values of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal/fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) were determined for samples of dry BV, as well as ether and methanol extracts from it. Gram-positive bacteria show the greatest sensitivity to the action of all tested drugs. The minimum MIC values for Gram-positive bacteria in the range of 0.12-7.63 ng mL^-1 were recorded for whole BV, while for the methanol extract they were 0.49-125 ng mL^-1. The ether extracts had a weaker effect on the tested bacteria (MIC values 31.25-500 ng mL^-1). Interestingly, Escherichia coli was more sensitive (MIC 7.63-500 ng mL^-1) to the action of bee venom compared to Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC ≥ 500 ng mL^-1). The results of the tests carried out indicate that the antimicrobial effect of BV is associated with the presence of not only peptides, such as melittin, but also low molecular weight metabolites.

Snake venom, a potential treatment for melanoma. A systematic review

Despite advances in treating patients with melanoma, there are still many treatment challenges to overcome. Studies with snake venom-derived proteins/peptides describe their binding potential, and inhibition of some proliferative mechanisms in melanoma. The combined use of these compounds with current therapies could be the strategic gap that will help us discover more effective treatments for melanoma. The present study aimed to carry out a systematic review identifying snake venom proteins and peptides described in the literature with antitumor, antimetastatic, or antiangiogenic effects on melanoma and determine the mechanisms of action that lead to these anti-tumor effects. Snake venoms contain proteins and peptides which are antiaggregant, antimetastatic, and antiangiogenic. The in vivo results are encouraging, considering the reduction of metastases and tumor size after treatment. In addition to these results, it was reported that these venom compounds could act in combination with chemotherapeutics (Acurhagin-C; Macrovipecetin), sensitizing and preparing tumor cells for treatment. There is a consensus that snake venom is a promising strategy for the improvement of antimelanoma therapies, but it has been little explored in the current context, combined with inhibitors, immunotherapy or tumor microenvironment, for example. We suggest Lebein as a candidate for combination therapy with BRAF inhibitors.

Pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of honey bee venom

Honey bee venom (BV) is a valuable product, and has a wide range of biological effects, and its use is rapidly increasing in apitherapy. Therefore, the current study, we reviewed the existing knowledge about BV composition and its numerous pharmacological properties for future research and use. Honey bee venom or apitoxin is produced in the venom gland in the honey bee abdomen. Adult bees use it as a primary colony defense mechanism. It is composed of many biologically active substances including peptides, enzymes, amines, amino acids, phospholipids, minerals, carbohydrates as well as some volatile components. Melittin and phospholipase A₂ are the most important components of BV, having anti-cancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis, anti-nociceptive and other curative potentials. Therefore, in medicine, BV has been used for centuries against different diseases like arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, and various inflammatory infections. Nowadays, BV or its components separately, are used for the treatment of various diseases in different countries as a natural medicine with limited side effects. Consequently, scientists as well as several pharmaceutical companies are trying to get a new understanding about BV, its substances and its activity for more effective use of this natural remedy in modern medicine.

Resveratrol used as nanotherapeutic: a promising additional therapeutic tool against hormone-sensitive, hormone-insensitive and resistant prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in men. Despite the development of diverse therapeutic agents for different types and stages, the progression or spread of the disease is inevitable. Another problem is the development of resistance of cancer cells to available therapeutics. Therefore, additional medicaments are urgently needed. Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin found in numerous plants and fruits like red grapes or blueberries. Resveratrol possesses antiproliferative, anti-angiogenic and anticancer activities well proven in different types of cancer including prostate cancer. To date, it is not used clinically due to poor solubility, low bioavailability, and other limiting factors. In order to overcome these limitations, novel nanoparticle-based formulations were developed over the past years. In this review article, studies about the effect of resveratrol on prostate cancer cells are discussed focusing especially on those studies using nanotechnology. An electronic literature research was performed utilizing PubMed in August 2022. Scientific publications, which examine resveratrol using nanotechnology, are discussed. The studies clearly indicate that resveratrol-loaded nanoparticles exhibited a remarkable anti-cancer activity in various hormone-sensitive and hormone-insensitive prostate cancer cell lines including docetaxel-resistant prostate-cancer cells. The types of nanoparticles that were used varied and influenced the outcome. Additionally, the meaning of the surface functionality of the nanoparticles is emphasized. No reduction of the anti-proliferative activity of resveratrol was shown when used encapsulated. Additionally, synergistic effects of resveratrol and docetaxel were proven. Resveratrol-loaded nanoparticles, especially when combined, may represent the next generation of anticancer substances. However, further in vivo/clinical studies are necessary to confirm their clinical effectiveness.

Pharmacological effects and mechanisms of bee venom and its main components: Recent progress and perspective

Bee venom (BV), a type of defensive venom, has been confirmed to have favorable activities, such as anti-tumor, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-infectivity effects, etc. This study reviewed the recent progress on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of BV and its main components against cancer, neurological disorders, inflammatory diseases, pain, microbial diseases, liver, kidney, lung and muscle injury, and other diseases in literature during the years 2018–2021. The related target proteins of BV and its main components against the diseases include Akt, mTOR, JNK, Wnt-5α, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JAK2, Nrf2, BDNF, Smad2/3, AMPK, and so on, which are referring to PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JAK/STAT, Nrf2/HO-1, TrkB/CREB/BDNF, TGF-β/Smad2/3, and AMPK signaling pathways, etc. Further, with the reported targets, the potential effects and mechanisms on diseases were bioinformatically predicted via Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway, disease ontology semantic and enrichment (DOSE) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) analyses. This review provides new insights into the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of BV and its main components on diseases.

Bee Venom Induces Acute Inflammation through a H2O2-Mediated System That Utilizes Superoxide Dismutase

Venoms from venomous arthropods, including bees, typically induce an immediate local inflammatory response; however, how venoms acutely elicit inflammatory response and which components induce an inflammatory response remain unknown. Moreover, the presence of superoxide dismutase (SOD3) in venom and its functional link to the acute inflammatory response has not been determined to date. Here, we confirmed that SOD3 in bee venom (bvSOD3) acts as an inducer of H₂O₂ production to promote acute inflammatory responses. In mouse models, exogenous bvSOD3 rapidly induced H₂O₂ overproduction through superoxides that are endogenously produced by melittin and phospholipase A₂, which then upregulated caspase-1 activation and proinflammatory molecule secretion and promoted an acute inflammatory response. We also showed that the relatively severe noxious effect of bvSOD3 elevated a type 2 immune response and bvSOD3 immunization protected against venom-induced inflammation. Our findings provide a novel view of the mechanism underlying bee venom-induced acute inflammation and offer a new approach to therapeutic treatments for bee envenoming and bee venom preparations for venom therapy/immunotherapy.

Anticancer Activity of Bee Venom Components against Breast Cancer

While the survival rate has increased due to treatments for breast cancer, the quality of life has decreased because of the side effects of chemotherapy. Various toxins are being developed as alternative breast cancer treatments, and bee venom is drawing attention as one of them. We analyzed the effect of bee venom and its components on breast cancer cells and reviewed the mechanism underlying the anticancer effects of bee venom. Data up to March 2022 were searched from PubMed, EMBASE, OASIS, KISS, and Science Direct online databases, and studies that met the inclusion criteria were reviewed. Among 612 studies, 11 were selected for this research. Diverse drugs were administered, including crude bee venom, melittin, phospholipase A2, and their complexes. All drugs reduced the number of breast cancer cells in proportion to the dose and time. The mechanisms of anticancer effects included cytotoxicity, apoptosis, cell targeting, gene expression regulation, and cell lysis. Summarily, bee venom and its components exert anticancer effects on human breast cancer cells. Depending on the mechanisms of anticancer effects, side effects are expected to be reduced by using various vehicles. Bee venom and its components have the potential to prevent and treat breast cancer in the future.

Bio-nano scale modifications of melittin for improving therapeutic efficacy

INTRODUCTION

Melittin (MLT), a natural membrane-active component, is the most prominent cytolytic peptide from bee venom. Remarkable biological properties of MLT, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-protozoan, and antiarthritic activities, make it an up-and-coming therapeutic candidate for a wide variety of human diseases. Therapeutic applications of MLT may be hindered due to low stability, high toxicity, and weak tissue penetration. Different bio-nano scale modifications hold promise for improving its functionality and therapeutic efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

In the current review, we aimed to provide a comprehensive insight into strategies used for MLT conjugations and modifications, cellular delivery of modified forms, and their clinical perspectives by reviewing the published literature on PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. We also emphasized the MLT structure modifications, mechanism of action, and cellular toxicity.

EXPERT OPINION

Developing new analogs and conjugates of MLT as a natural drug with improved functions and fewer side effects is crucial for the clinical translation of this approach worldwide, especially where the chemicals and synthetic drugs are more expensive or unavailable in the healthcare system. MLT-nanoconjugation may be one of the best-optimized strategies for improving peptide delivery, increasing its therapeutic efficacy, and providing minimal nonspecific cellular lytic activity. [Figure: see text].

Sweet Bee Venom Triggers Multiple Cell Death Pathways or Spurs Acute Cell Rupture According to Its Concentration in THP-1 Monocytic Leukemia Cells

Sweet bee venom (sBV) contains various pharmacologically active components of bee venom (BV), but it is modified via the removal of the harmful substances found in BV. Thus, sBV has been used for pain relief in Oriental medicine but has only recently been applied for the treatment of various diseases. In this study, we examined the pharmacological effects and immunomodulatory functions of sBV in THP-1 monocytic leukemia cells. Growth inhibition and cell death were observed according to the concentration of sBV. However, the rapid collapse of cell cycle distribution was shown at 20 μg/mL sBV treatment, indicating that sBV led to cell death or acute cell rupture according to concentration. sBV administration activated Caspase-9, PARP1, RIPK1, and RIPK3, suggesting that the pharmacological actions of sBV were associated with induction of apoptosis and necroptosis. On the other hand, sBV or LPS administration increased cytokine expression, including IL-1β, and showed synergistic cell death in combinatory treatment conditions. Moreover, combinatory administration of sBV and LPS induced severe damage or death during egg development. This result implies that sBV exhibits both pharmacological and toxic effects depending on its concentration. Therefore, sBV might be a promising therapeutic approach, but optimal concentration should be considered before treatment.

Bee Venom: From Venom to Drug

Insects of the order Hymenoptera have a defensive substance that contains many biologically active compounds. Specifically, venom from honeybees (Apis mellifera) contains many enzymes and peptides that are effective against various diseases. Different research papers stated the possibility of using bee venom (a direct bee sting or in an injectable form) in treating several complications; either in vivo or in vitro. Other reports used the active fractions of bee venom clinically or at labratory scale. Many reports and publications have stated that bee venom and its constituents have multiple biological activities including anti-microbial, anti-protozoan, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic properties. The present review aims to refer to the use of bee venom itself or its fractions in treating several diseases and counteracting drug toxicities as an alternative protocol of therapy. The updated molecular mechanisms of actions of bee venom and its components are discussed in light of the previous updated publications. The review also summarizes the potential of venom loaded on nanoparticles as a drug delivery vehicle and its molecular mechanisms. Finally, the products of bee venom available in markets are also demonstrated.