Further Evidence for in Utero Transmission of Equine Hepacivirus to Foals

Detection of Equine Parvovirus-Hepatitis Virus and Equine Hepacivirus in Archived Sera from Horses in France and Australia

Reports of newly discovered equine hepatotropic flavi- and parvoviruses have emerged throughout the last decade in many countries, the discovery of which has stimulated a great deal of interest and clinical research. Although commonly detected in horses without signs of disease, equine parvovirus hepatitis (EqPV-H) and equine hepacivirus (EqHV) have been associated with liver disease, including following the administration of contaminated anti-toxin. Our aim was to determine whether EqPV-H and EqHV are present in Australian horses and whether EqPV-H was present in French horses and to examine sequence diversity between strains of both viruses amongst infected horses on either side of the globe. Sera from 188 Australian horses and 256 French horses from horses with and without clinical signs of disease were collected. Twelve out of 256 (4.7%) and 6 out of 188 (3.2%) French and Australian horses, respectively, were positive for the molecular detection of EqPV-H. Five out of 256 (1.9%) and 21 out of 188 (11.2%) French and Australian horses, respectively, were positive for the molecular detection of EqHV. Australian strains for both viruses were genomically clustered, in contrast to strains from French horses, which were more broadly distributed. The findings of this preliminary survey, with the molecular detection of EqHV and EqPV-H in Australia and the latter in France, adds to the growing body of awareness regarding these recently discovered hepatotropic viruses. It has provided valuable information not just in terms of geographic endemicity but will guide equine clinicians, carers, and authorities regarding infectious agents and potential impacts of allogenic tissue contamination. Although we have filled many gaps in the world map regarding equine hepatotropic viruses, further prospective studies in this emerging field may be useful in terms of elucidating risk factors and pathogenesis of these pathogens and management of cases in terms of prevention and diagnosis.

First National Prevalence in Italian Horse Population and Phylogenesis Highlight a Fourth Sub-Type Candidate of Equine Hepacivirus

Equine hepacivirus (EqHV, Flaviviridae, hepacivirus) is a small, enveloped RNA virus generally causing sub-clinical hepatitis with occasional fatalities. EqHV is reported in equids worldwide, but for Italy data are limited. To address this, a survey study was set up to estimate prevalence at a national level and among different production categories (equestrian; competition; work and meat; reproduction) and national macro-regions (North, Central, South, and Islands). Data obtained testing 1801 horse serum samples by Real-Time RT PCR were compared within the categories and regions. The NS3 fragment of the PCR-positive samples was sequenced by Sanger protocol for phylogenetic and mutational analysis. The tertiary structure of the NS3 protein was also assessed. The estimated national prevalence was 4.27% [1.97-6.59, 95% CI] and no statistical differences were detected among production categories and macro-regions. The phylogenesis confirmed the distribution in Italy of the three known EqHV subtypes, also suggesting a possible fourth sub-type that, however, requires further confirmation. Mutational profiles that could also affect the NS3 binding affinity to the viral RNA were detected. The present paper demonstrates that EqHV should be included in diagnostic protocols when investigating causes of hepatitis, and in quality control protocols for blood derived products due to its parental transmission.

Equine Hepacivirus: A Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis of Serological and Biomolecular Prevalence and a Phylogenetic Update

Viral hepatitis has recently assumed relevance for equine veterinary medicine since a variety of new viruses have been discovered. Equine Hepacivirus (EqHV) is an RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family that can cause subclinical hepatitis in horses, occasionally evolving into a chronic disease. EqHV, to date, is considered the closest known relative of human HCV. EqHV has been reported worldwide therefore assessing its features is relevant, considering both the wide use of blood products and transfusions in veterinary therapies and its similitude to HCV. The present review resumes the actual knowledge on EqHV epidemiology, risk factors and immunology, together with potential diagnostics and good practices for prevention. Moreover, adhering to PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews a meta-analysis of serological and biomolecular prevalence and an updated phylogenetic description is presented as a benchmark for further studies.

Expanded Diversity and Host Range of Bovine Hepacivirus—Genomic and Serological Evidence in Domestic and Wild Ruminant Species

The hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related bovine hepacivirus (BovHepV) can cause acute as well as persistent infections in cattle. The true clinical relevance of the virus is not yet known. As reliable antibody detection methods are lacking and prevalence studies have only been conducted in cattle and few countries to date, the true distribution, genetic diversity, and host range is probably greatly underestimated. In this study, we applied several RT-PCR methods and a nano-luciferase-based immunoprecipitation system (LIPS) assay to analyze bovine serum samples from Bulgaria as well as wild ruminant sera from Germany and the Czech Republic. Using these methods, BovHepV infections were confirmed in Bulgarian cattle, with viral genomes detected in 6.9% and serological reactions against the BovHepV NS3 helicase domain in 10% of bovine serum samples. Genetic analysis demonstrated co-circulation of highly diverse BovHepV strains in Bulgarian cattle, and three novel BovHepV subtypes within the genotype 1 could be defined. Furthermore, application of a nested RT-PCR led to the first description of a BovHepV variant (genotype 2) in a wild ruminant species. The results of this study significantly enhance our knowledge of BovHepV distribution, genetic diversity, and host range.

An Equine Model for Vaccination against a Hepacivirus: Insights into Host Responses to E2 Recombinant Protein Vaccination and Subsequent Equine Hepacivirus Inoculation

Equine hepacivirus (EqHV) is the closest known genetic homologue of hepatitis C virus. An effective prophylactic vaccine is currently not available for either of these hepaciviruses. The equine as potential surrogate model for hepacivirus vaccine studies was investigated, while equine host responses following vaccination with EqHV E2 recombinant protein and subsequent EqHV inoculation were elucidated. Four ponies received prime and booster vaccinations (recombinant protein, adjuvant) four weeks apart (day −55 and −27). Two control ponies received adjuvant only. Ponies were inoculated with EqHV RNA-positive plasma on day 0. Blood samples and liver biopsies were collected over 26 weeks (day −70 to +112). Serum analyses included detection of EqHV RNA, isotypes of E2-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG), nonstructural protein 3-specific IgG, haematology, serum biochemistry, and metabolomics. Liver tissue analyses included EqHV RNA detection, RNA sequencing, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and fluorescent in situ hybridization. Al-though vaccination did not result in complete protective immunity against experimental EqHV inoculation, the majority of vaccinated ponies cleared the serum EqHV RNA earlier than the control ponies. The majority of vaccinated ponies appeared to recover from the EqHV-associated liver insult earlier than the control ponies. The equine model shows promise as a surrogate model for future hepacivirus vaccine research.

Non-primate hepacivirus transmission and prevalence: Novel findings of virus circulation in horses and dogs in Morocco

Non-primate hepacivirus (NPHV) is a homolog of hepatitis C virus and has been isolated from dogs and horses. Data on NPHV prevalence and distribution are not complete, and there is a particular lack of reports from the African continent. The present study represents the first investigation of NPHV prevalence in horses and dogs in North Africa. Blood was collected from 172 horses and 36 dogs at different locations in Morocco, and screened for NPHV RNA using nested PCR targeting 5'UTR and NS3 regions and analyzed for anti-NPHV NS3 antibody using a Gaussia luciferase immunoprecipitation system-to determine seroprevalence. Eight sequences of the NS3 region isolated from positive serum samples were targeted for phylogenetic analysis. Horses and dogs showed respective NPHV RNA positivity rates of 10.5% and 5.5%, and seroprevalences of 65.7% and 8.33%. Juvenile horses appeared more susceptible to infection, with a 23.5% NHPV RNA positivity rate. Seropositivity was more extensive in mares than stallions (77.14% vs. 46.27%, p < 0.0001). Phylogenetically, that NPHV NS3 genes isolated from horses and dog are clustered together. The NPHV strains we detected showed no correlation with geographic location within Morocco. In conclusion, Moroccan horses showed much evidence of previous and/or current NPHV infection, with young age and female sex as noted potential risk factors. Interestingly, NPHV is circulating in dogs as well as horses, suggesting that it has crossed species barriers and that horses and dogs are potential vectors by which an ancestor to hepatitis C virus was transmitted into human populations.