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Xia Y, Liu K, Wang F, Xu Z, Wang Y, Zong R, Xu Y, Li P, Deng B, Xu M, Chen G. Self-Assembled Virus-Like Particle Vaccines via Fluorophilic Interactions Enable Infection Mimicry and Immune Protection. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2301647. [PMID: 37703498 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202301647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Influenza epidemics persistently threaten global health. Vaccines based on virus-like particles (VLPs), which resemble the native conformation of viruses, have emerged as vaccine candidates. However, the production of VLPs via genetic engineering remains constrained by challenges such as low yields, high costs, and being time consuming. In this study, a novel VLP platform is developed that could mimic infection and confer influenza protection through fluorination-driven self-assembly. The VLPs closely mimick the key steps in viral infection including dendritic cell (DC) attachment and pH-responsive endo-lysosomal escape, which enhances DC maturation and antigen cross-presentation. It is also observed that the VLPs migrate from the injection site to the draining lymph nodes efficiently. Immunization with VLPs triggers both Th1 and Th2 cellular responses, thereby inducing an improved CD8+ T cell response along with strong antigen-specific antibody responses. In several infected mouse models, VLP vaccines ameliorate weight loss, lung virus titers, pulmonary pathologies, and confer full protection against H1N1, H6N2, H9N2, and mixed influenza viruses. Therefore, the results support the potential of VLPs as an effective influenza vaccine with improved immune potency against infection. A methodology to generate VLPs based on fluorophilic interactions, which can be a general approach for development of pathogenic VLPs, is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinhe Xia
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
| | - Kai Liu
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
| | - Fei Wang
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
| | - Zhou Xu
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
| | - Yuesheng Wang
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
| | - Rongling Zong
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
| | - Yemin Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
| | - Ping Li
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
| | - Bin Deng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China
| | - Maolei Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, P. R. China
| | - Gang Chen
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Engineering, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
- Qingdao Hospital (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266024, P. R. China
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2
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Braz Gomes K, Vijayanand S, Bagwe P, Menon I, Kale A, Patil S, Kang SM, Uddin MN, D’Souza MJ. Vaccine-Induced Immunity Elicited by Microneedle Delivery of Influenza Ectodomain Matrix Protein 2 Virus-like Particle (M2e VLP)-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10612. [PMID: 37445784 PMCID: PMC10341628 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This study focused on developing an influenza vaccine delivered in polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) using dissolving microneedles. We first formulated an influenza extracellular matrix protein 2 virus-like particle (M2e VLP)-loaded with poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles, yielding M2e5x VLP PLGA NPs. The vaccine particles were characterized for their physical properties and in vitro immunogenicity. Next, the M2e5x VLP PLGA NPs, along with the adjuvant Alhydrogel® and monophosphoryl lipid A® (MPL-A®) PLGA NPs, were loaded into fast-dissolving microneedles. The vaccine microneedle patches were then evaluated in vivo in a murine model. The results from this study demonstrated that the vaccine nanoparticles effectively stimulated antigen-presenting cells in vitro resulting in enhanced autophagy, nitric oxide, and antigen presentation. In mice, the vaccine elicited M2e-specific antibodies in both serum and lung supernatants (post-challenge) and induced significant expression of CD4+ and CD8+ populations in the lymph nodes and spleens of immunized mice. Hence, this study demonstrated that polymeric particulates for antigen and adjuvant encapsulation, delivered using fast-dissolving microneedles, significantly enhanced the immunogenicity of a conserved influenza antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keegan Braz Gomes
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Sharon Vijayanand
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Priyal Bagwe
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Ipshita Menon
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Akanksha Kale
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Smital Patil
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Sang-Moo Kang
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity, and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Mohammad N. Uddin
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Martin J. D’Souza
- Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
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Wibowo YG, Ramadan BS, Taher T, Khairurrijal K. Advancements of Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials in Environmental and Human Protection for Combatting the COVID-19 During and Post-pandemic Era: A Comprehensive Scientific Review. BIOMEDICAL MATERIALS & DEVICES (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023:1-24. [PMID: 37363141 PMCID: PMC10171735 DOI: 10.1007/s44174-023-00086-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
In December 2019, an outbreak of unknown pneumonia emerged in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. It was later identified as the SARS-CoV-2 virus and has since infected over 9 million people in more than 213 countries worldwide. Massive papers on the topic of SARS-CoV-2 that have already been published are necessary to be analyzed and discussed. This paper used the combination of systematic literature network analysis and content analysis to develop a comprehensive discussion related to the use of nanotechnology and materials in environmental and human protection. Its is shown that various efforts have been made to control the transmission of this pandemic. Nanotechnology plays a crucial role in modern vaccine design, as nanomaterials are essential tools for antigen delivery, adjuvants, and mimics of viral structures. In addition, nanomaterials and nanotechnology also reported a crucial role in environmental protection for defence and treating the pandemic. To eradicate pandemics now and in the future, successful treatments must enable rapid discovery, scalable manufacturing, and global distribution. In this review, we discuss the current approaches to COVID-19 development and highlight the critical role of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in combating the virus in the human body and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yudha Gusti Wibowo
- Department of Mining Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sumatrea, Lampung, 35365 Indonesia
| | | | - Tarmizi Taher
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sumatera, Lampung, 35365 Indonesia
| | - Khairurrijal Khairurrijal
- Department of Physics, Institut Teknologi Sumatera, Lampung, 35365 Indonesia
- Department of Physics, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, 40132 Indonesia
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Nordin AH, Husna SMN, Ahmad Z, Nordin ML, Ilyas RA, Azemi AK, Ismail N, Siti NH, Ngadi N, Azami MSM, Mohamad Norpi AS, Reduan MFH, Osman AY, Pratama DAOA, Nabgan W, Shaari R. Natural Polymeric Composites Derived from Animals, Plants, and Microbes for Vaccine Delivery and Adjuvant Applications: A Review. Gels 2023; 9:227. [PMID: 36975676 PMCID: PMC10048722 DOI: 10.3390/gels9030227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
A key element in ensuring successful immunization is the efficient delivery of vaccines. However, poor immunogenicity and adverse inflammatory immunogenic reactions make the establishment of an efficient vaccine delivery method a challenging task. The delivery of vaccines has been performed via a variety of delivery methods, including natural-polymer-based carriers that are relatively biocompatible and have low toxicity. The incorporation of adjuvants or antigens into biomaterial-based immunizations has demonstrated better immune response than formulations that just contain the antigen. This system may enable antigen-mediated immunogenicity and shelter and transport the cargo vaccine or antigen to the appropriate target organ. In this regard, this work reviews the recent applications of natural polymer composites from different sources, such as animals, plants, and microbes, in vaccine delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abu Hassan Nordin
- Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Siti Muhamad Nur Husna
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Zuliahani Ahmad
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Arau 02600, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Luqman Nordin
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Centre for Veterinary Vaccinology (VetVaCC), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Rushdan Ahmad Ilyas
- Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia
- Centre for Advanced Composite Materials (CACM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Khusairi Azemi
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Noraznawati Ismail
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Nordin Hawa Siti
- Pharmacology Unit, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Kuala Terengganu 20400, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Norzita Ngadi
- Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia
| | | | - Abdin Shakirin Mohamad Norpi
- Faculty Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Royal College of Medicine Perak, Ipoh 30450, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Farhan Hanif Reduan
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Centre for Veterinary Vaccinology (VetVaCC), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Abdinasir Yusuf Osman
- The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, UK
- National Institutes of Health (NIH), Ministry of Health, Corso Somalia Street, Shingani, Mogadishu P.O. Box 22, Somalia
| | | | - Walid Nabgan
- Departament d’Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Rumaizi Shaari
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia
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Vijayanand S, Patil S, Menon I, Braz Gomes K, Kale A, Bagwe P, Uddin MN, Zughaier SM, D’Souza MJ. An Adjuvanted Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Microparticulate Vaccine Delivered Using Microneedles Induces a Robust Immune Response in Vaccinated Mice. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15030895. [PMID: 36986756 PMCID: PMC10058898 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, the causal agent of COVID-19, is a contagious respiratory virus that frequently mutates, giving rise to variant strains and leading to reduced vaccine efficacy against the variants. Frequent vaccination against the emerging variants may be necessary; thus, an efficient vaccination system is needed. A microneedle (MN) vaccine delivery system is non-invasive, patient-friendly, and can be self-administered. Here, we tested the immune response produced by an adjuvanted inactivated SARS-CoV-2 microparticulate vaccine administered via the transdermal route using a dissolving MN. The inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine antigen and adjuvants (Alhydrogel® and AddaVax™) were encapsulated in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymer matrices. The resulting MP were approximately 910 nm in size, with a high percentage yield and percent encapsulation efficiency of 90.4%. In vitro, the vaccine MP was non-cytotoxic and increased the immunostimulatory activity measured as nitric oxide release from dendritic cells. The adjuvant MP potentiated the immune response of the vaccine MP in vitro. In vivo, the adjuvanted SARS-CoV-2 MP vaccine induced high levels of IgM, IgG, IgA, IgG1, and IgG2a antibodies and CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses in immunized mice. In conclusion, the adjuvanted inactivated SARS-CoV-2 MP vaccine delivered using MN induced a robust immune response in vaccinated mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Vijayanand
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Smital Patil
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Ipshita Menon
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Keegan Braz Gomes
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Akanksha Kale
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Priyal Bagwe
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Mohammad N. Uddin
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Susu M. Zughaier
- College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar
- Correspondence:
| | - Martin J. D’Souza
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
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Kale A, Joshi D, Menon I, Bagwe P, Patil S, Vijayanand S, Braz Gomes K, Uddin MN, D'Souza MJ. Zika Vaccine Microparticles (MPs)-Loaded Dissolving Microneedles (MNs) Elicit a Significant Immune Response in a Pre-Clinical Murine Model. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11030583. [PMID: 36992167 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11030583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the global Zika epidemic in 2015–16 fueled vaccine development efforts, there is no approved Zika vaccine or treatment available to date. Current vaccine platforms in clinical trials are administered via either subcutaneous or intramuscular injections, which are painful and decrease compliance. Therefore, in the present study, we explored Zika vaccine microparticles (MPs)-loaded dissolving microneedles (MNs) with adjuvant MPs encapsulating Alhydrogel® and MPL-A® administered via the transdermal route as a pain-free vaccine strategy. We characterized the MNs for needle length, pore formation, and dissolvability when applied to murine skin. Further, we evaluated the in vivo efficacy of vaccine MPs-loaded MNs with or without adjuvants by measuring the immune response after transdermal immunization. The vaccine MPs-loaded dissolving MNs with adjuvants induced significant IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a titers in immunized mice compared to the untreated control group. After the dosing regimen, the animals were challenged with Zika virus, monitored for seven days, and sacrificed to collect spleen and lymph nodes. The lymphocytes and splenocytes from the immunized mice showed significant expressions of helper (CD4) and cytotoxic (CD8a) cell surface markers compared to the control group. Thus, this study puts forth a ‘proof-of-concept’ for a pain-free transdermal vaccine strategy against Zika.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Kale
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Devyani Joshi
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Ipshita Menon
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Priyal Bagwe
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Smital Patil
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Sharon Vijayanand
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Keegan Braz Gomes
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Mohammad N Uddin
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Martin J D'Souza
- Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery and Research, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
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Chu KB, Quan FS. Respiratory Viruses and Virus-like Particle Vaccine Development: How Far Have We Advanced? Viruses 2023; 15:v15020392. [PMID: 36851606 PMCID: PMC9965150 DOI: 10.3390/v15020392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
With technological advancements enabling globalization, the intercontinental transmission of pathogens has become much easier. Respiratory viruses are one such group of pathogens that require constant monitoring since their outbreak leads to massive public health crises, as exemplified by the influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and the recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2. To prevent the transmission of these highly contagious viruses, developing prophylactic tools, such as vaccines, is of considerable interest to the scientific community. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are highly sought after as vaccine platforms for their safety and immunogenicity profiles. Although several VLP-based vaccines against hepatitis B and human papillomavirus have been approved for clinical use by the United States Food and Drug Administration, VLP vaccines against the three aforementioned respiratory viruses are lacking. Here, we summarize the most recent progress in pre-clinical and clinical VLP vaccine development. We also outline various strategies that contributed to improving the efficacy of vaccines against each virus and briefly discuss the stability aspect of VLPs that makes it a highly desired vaccine platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Back Chu
- Medical Research Center for Bioreaction to Reactive Oxygen Species and Biomedical Science Institute, Core Research Institute (CRI), Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Fu-Shi Quan
- Medical Research Center for Bioreaction to Reactive Oxygen Species and Biomedical Science Institute, Core Research Institute (CRI), Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Medical Zoology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence:
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