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Cioffi MD, Sharma T, Motsa BB, Bhattarai N, Gerstman BS, Stahelin RV, Chapagain PP. Ebola Virus Matrix Protein VP40 Single Mutations G198R and G201R Significantly Enhance Plasma Membrane Localization. J Phys Chem B 2024. [PMID: 39326870 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c02700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
Viral proteins frequently undergo single or multiple amino acid mutations during replication, which can significantly alter their functionality. The Ebola virus matrix protein VP40 is multifunctional but primarily responsible for creating the viral envelope by binding to the inner leaflet of the host cell plasma membrane (PM). Changes to the VP40 surface cationic charge via mutations can influence PM interactions, resulting in altered viral assembly and budding. A recent mutagenesis study evaluated the effects of several mutations and found that mutations G198R and G201R enhanced VP40 assembly at the PM and virus-like particle budding. These two mutations lie in the loop region of the C-terminal domain (CTD), which directly interacts with the PM. To understand the role of these mutations in PM localization at the molecular level, we performed both all-atom and coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations using a dimer-dimer configuration of VP40, which contains the CTD-CTD interface. Our studies indicate that the location of mutations on the outer surface of the CTD regions can lead to changes in membrane binding orientation and degree of membrane penetration. Direct PI(4,5)P2 interactions with the mutated residues seem to further stabilize and pull VP40 into the PM, thereby enhancing interactions with numerous amino acids that were otherwise infrequently or completely inaccessible. These multiscale computational studies provide new insights at the atomic and molecular level as to how VP40-PM interactions are altered through single amino acid mutations. Given the high case fatality rates associated with Ebola virus disease in humans, it is essential to explore the mechanisms of viral assembly in the presence of mutations to mitigate the severity of the disease and understand the potential of future outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Cioffi
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Tej Sharma
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Balindile B Motsa
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Nisha Bhattarai
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Bernard S Gerstman
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
- Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Robert V Stahelin
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- The Purdue Institute for Inflammation, Immunology and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Prem P Chapagain
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
- Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
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2
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Zhang H, Liu X, Shi J, Su X, Xie J, Meng Q, Dong H. Research progress on the mechanism of exosome-mediated virus infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1418168. [PMID: 38988816 PMCID: PMC11233549 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1418168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are extracelluar vesicles that facilitate intercellular communication and are pivotal in post-transcriptional regulation within cellular gene regulatory networks, impacting pathogen dynamics. These vesicles serve as crucial regulators of immune responses, mediating cellular interactions and enabling the introduction of viral pathogenic regions into host cells. Exosomes released from virus-infected cells harbor diverse microRNAs (miRNAs), which can be transferred to recipient cells, thereby modulating virus infection. This transfer is a critical element in the molecular interplay mediated by exosomes. Additionally, the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) within exosomes plays a vital role in virus infection, with ESCRT components binding to viral proteins to facilitate virus budding. This review elucidates the roles of exosomes and their constituents in the invasion of host cells by viruses, aiming to shed new light on the regulation of viral transmission via exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanjia Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xuanyi Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jiuming Shi
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xuan Su
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jiayuan Xie
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Qingfeng Meng
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Engineering Research Center of Bioreactor and Pharmaceutical Development, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Hao Dong
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Engineering Research Center of Bioreactor and Pharmaceutical Development, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
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Hayat M, Gao T, Cao Y, Rafiq M, Zhuo L, Li YZ. Identification of Prospective Ebola Virus VP35 and VP40 Protein Inhibitors from Myxobacterial Natural Products. Biomolecules 2024; 14:660. [PMID: 38927063 PMCID: PMC11201620 DOI: 10.3390/biom14060660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The Ebola virus (EBOV) is a lethal pathogen causing hemorrhagic fever syndrome which remains a global health challenge. In the EBOV, two multifunctional proteins, VP35 and VP40, have significant roles in replication, virion assembly, and budding from the cell and have been identified as druggable targets. In this study, we employed in silico methods comprising molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations, and pharmacological properties to identify prospective drugs for inhibiting VP35 and VP40 proteins from the myxobacterial bioactive natural product repertoire. Cystobactamid 934-2, Cystobactamid 919-1, and Cittilin A bound firmly to VP35. Meanwhile, 2-Hydroxysorangiadenosine, Enhypyrazinone B, and Sorangiadenosine showed strong binding to the matrix protein VP40. Molecular dynamic simulations revealed that, among these compounds, Cystobactamid 919-1 and 2-Hydroxysorangiadenosine had stable interactions with their respective targets. Similarly, molecular mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area (MMPBSA) calculations indicated close-fitting receptor binding with VP35 or VP40. These two compounds also exhibited good pharmacological properties. In conclusion, we identified Cystobactamid 919-1 and 2-Hydroxysorangiadenosine as potential ligands for EBOV that target VP35 and VP40 proteins. These findings signify an essential step in vitro and in vivo to validate their potential for EBOV inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Hayat
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; (M.H.); (T.G.); (Y.C.); (Y.-Z.L.)
| | - Tian Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; (M.H.); (T.G.); (Y.C.); (Y.-Z.L.)
| | - Ying Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; (M.H.); (T.G.); (Y.C.); (Y.-Z.L.)
| | - Muhammad Rafiq
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, Balochistan University of IT, Engineering and Management Sciences, Quetta 87100, Pakistan
| | - Li Zhuo
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; (M.H.); (T.G.); (Y.C.); (Y.-Z.L.)
- Shenzhen Research Institute, Shandong University, Shenzhen 518057, China
- Suzhou Research Institute, Shandong University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yue-Zhong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China; (M.H.); (T.G.); (Y.C.); (Y.-Z.L.)
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4
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Motsa BB, Sharma T, Cioffi MD, Chapagain PP, Stahelin RV. Minor electrostatic changes robustly increase VP40 membrane binding, assembly, and budding of Ebola virus matrix protein derived virus-like particles. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:107213. [PMID: 38522519 PMCID: PMC11061732 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Ebola virus (EBOV) is a filamentous negative-sense RNA virus, which causes severe hemorrhagic fever. There are limited vaccines or therapeutics for prevention and treatment of EBOV, so it is important to get a detailed understanding of the virus lifecycle to illuminate new drug targets. EBOV encodes for the matrix protein, VP40, which regulates assembly and budding of new virions from the inner leaflet of the host cell plasma membrane (PM). In this work, we determine the effects of VP40 mutations altering electrostatics on PM interactions and subsequent budding. VP40 mutations that modify surface electrostatics affect viral assembly and budding by altering VP40 membrane-binding capabilities. Mutations that increase VP40 net positive charge by one (e.g., Gly to Arg or Asp to Ala) increase VP40 affinity for phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in the host cell PM. This increased affinity enhances PM association and budding efficiency leading to more effective formation of virus-like particles. In contrast, mutations that decrease net positive charge by one (e.g., Gly to Asp) lead to a decrease in assembly and budding because of decreased interactions with the anionic PM. Taken together, our results highlight the sensitivity of slight electrostatic changes on the VP40 surface for assembly and budding. Understanding the effects of single amino acid substitutions on viral budding and assembly will be useful for explaining changes in the infectivity and virulence of different EBOV strains, VP40 variants that occur in nature, and for long-term drug discovery endeavors aimed at EBOV assembly and budding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balindile B Motsa
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Tej Sharma
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Michael D Cioffi
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Prem P Chapagain
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA; Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Robert V Stahelin
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
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Wang H, Marucci G, Munke A, Hassan MM, Lalle M, Okamoto K. High-resolution comparative atomic structures of two Giardiavirus prototypes infecting G. duodenalis parasite. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012140. [PMID: 38598600 PMCID: PMC11081498 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The Giardia lamblia virus (GLV) is a non-enveloped icosahedral dsRNA and endosymbiont virus that infects the zoonotic protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis (syn. G. lamblia, G. intestinalis), which is a pathogen of mammals, including humans. Elucidating the transmission mechanism of GLV is crucial for gaining an in-depth understanding of the virulence of the virus in G. duodenalis. GLV belongs to the family Totiviridae, which infects yeast and protozoa intracellularly; however, it also transmits extracellularly, similar to the phylogenetically, distantly related toti-like viruses that infect multicellular hosts. The GLV capsid structure is extensively involved in the longstanding discussion concerning extracellular transmission in Totiviridae and toti-like viruses. Hence, this study constructed the first high-resolution comparative atomic models of two GLV strains, namely GLV-HP and GLV-CAT, which showed different intracellular localization and virulence phenotypes, using cryogenic electron microscopy single-particle analysis. The atomic models of the GLV capsids presented swapped C-terminal extensions, extra surface loops, and a lack of cap-snatching pockets, similar to those of toti-like viruses. However, their open pores and absence of the extra crown protein resemble those of other yeast and protozoan Totiviridae viruses, demonstrating the essential structures for extracellular cell-to-cell transmission. The structural comparison between GLV-HP and GLV-CAT indicates the first evidence of critical structural motifs for the transmission and virulence of GLV in G. duodenalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Wang
- The Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Gianluca Marucci
- Unit of Foodborne and Neglected Parasitic Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Munke
- The Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science CFEL, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mohammad Maruf Hassan
- The Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marco Lalle
- Unit of Foodborne and Neglected Parasitic Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Rome, Italy
| | - Kenta Okamoto
- The Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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6
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Motsa BB, Sharma T, Chapagain PP, Stahelin RV. Minor changes in electrostatics robustly increase VP40 membrane binding, assembly, and budding of Ebola virus matrix protein derived virus-like particles. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.30.578092. [PMID: 38352396 PMCID: PMC10862912 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.30.578092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Ebola virus (EBOV) is a filamentous negative-sense RNA virus which causes severe hemorrhagic fever. There are limited vaccines or therapeutics for prevention and treatment of EBOV, so it is important to get a detailed understanding of the virus lifecycle to illuminate new drug targets. EBOV encodes for the matrix protein, VP40, which regulates assembly and budding of new virions from the inner leaflet of the host cell plasma membrane (PM). In this work we determine the effects of VP40 mutations altering electrostatics on PM interactions and subsequent budding. VP40 mutations that modify surface electrostatics affect viral assembly and budding by altering VP40 membrane binding capabilities. Mutations that increase VP40 net positive charge by one (e.g., Gly to Arg or Asp to Ala) increase VP40 affinity for phosphatidylserine (PS) and PI(4,5)P2 in the host cell PM. This increased affinity enhances PM association and budding efficiency leading to more effective formation of virus-like particles (VLPs). In contrast, mutations that decrease net positive charge by one (e.g., Gly to Asp) lead to a decrease in assembly and budding because of decreased interactions with the anionic PM. Taken together our results highlight the sensitivity of slight electrostatic changes on the VP40 surface for assembly and budding. Understanding the effects of single amino acid substitutions on viral budding and assembly will be useful for explaining changes in the infectivity and virulence of different EBOV strains, VP40 variants that occur in nature, and for long-term drug discovery endeavors aimed at EBOV assembly and budding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balindile B. Motsa
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology and the Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Tej Sharma
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Prem P. Chapagain
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
- Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Robert V. Stahelin
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology and the Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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7
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Narkhede YB, Bhardwaj A, Motsa BB, Saxena R, Sharma T, Chapagain PP, Stahelin RV, Wiest O. Elucidating Residue-Level Determinants Affecting Dimerization of Ebola Virus Matrix Protein Using High-Throughput Site Saturation Mutagenesis and Biophysical Approaches. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:6449-6461. [PMID: 37458567 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c01759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
The Ebola virus (EBOV) is a filamentous virus that acquires its lipid envelope from the plasma membrane of the host cell it infects. EBOV assembly and budding from the host cell plasma membrane are mediated by a peripheral protein, known as the matrix protein VP40. VP40 is a 326 amino acid protein with two domains that are loosely linked. The VP40 N-terminal domain (NTD) contains a hydrophobic α-helix, which mediates VP40 dimerization. The VP40 C-terminal domain has a cationic patch, which mediates interactions with anionic lipids and a hydrophobic region that mediates VP40 dimer-dimer interactions. The VP40 dimer is necessary for trafficking to the plasma membrane inner leaflet and interactions with anionic lipids to mediate the VP40 assembly and oligomerization. Despite significant structural information available on the VP40 dimer structure, little is known on how the VP40 dimer is stabilized and how residues outside the NTD hydrophobic portion of the α-helical dimer interface contribute to dimer stability. To better understand how VP40 dimer stability is maintained, we performed computational studies using per-residue energy decomposition and site saturation mutagenesis. These studies revealed a number of novel keystone residues for VP40 dimer stability just adjacent to the α-helical dimer interface as well as distant residues in the VP40 CTD that can stabilize the VP40 dimer form. Experimental studies with representative VP40 mutants in vitro and in cells were performed to test computational predictions that reveal residues that alter VP40 dimer stability. Taken together, these studies provide important biophysical insights into VP40 dimerization and may be useful in strategies to weaken or alter the VP40 dimer structure as a means of inhibiting the EBOV assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesh B Narkhede
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Atul Bhardwaj
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Balindile B Motsa
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Roopashi Saxena
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | | | | | - Robert V Stahelin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Olaf Wiest
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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Broni E, Ashley C, Adams J, Manu H, Aikins E, Okom M, Miller WA, Wilson MD, Kwofie SK. Cheminformatics-Based Study Identifies Potential Ebola VP40 Inhibitors. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076298. [PMID: 37047270 PMCID: PMC10094735 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The Ebola virus (EBOV) is still highly infectious and causes severe hemorrhagic fevers in primates. However, there are no regulatorily approved drugs against the Ebola virus disease (EVD). The highly virulent and lethal nature of EVD highlights the need to develop therapeutic agents. Viral protein 40 kDa (VP40), the most abundantly expressed protein during infection, coordinates the assembly, budding, and release of viral particles into the host cell. It also regulates viral transcription and RNA replication. This study sought to identify small molecules that could potentially inhibit the VP40 protein by targeting the N-terminal domain using an in silico approach. The statistical quality of AutoDock Vina’s capacity to discriminate between inhibitors and decoys was determined, and an area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic (AUC-ROC) curve of 0.791 was obtained. A total of 29,519 natural-product-derived compounds from Chinese and African sources as well as 2738 approved drugs were successfully screened against VP40. Using a threshold of −8 kcal/mol, a total of 7, 11, 163, and 30 compounds from the AfroDb, Northern African Natural Products Database (NANPDB), traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), and approved drugs libraries, respectively, were obtained after molecular docking. A biological activity prediction of the lead compounds suggested their potential antiviral properties. In addition, random-forest- and support-vector-machine-based algorithms predicted the compounds to be anti-Ebola with IC50 values in the micromolar range (less than 25 μM). A total of 42 natural-product-derived compounds were identified as potential EBOV inhibitors with desirable ADMET profiles, comprising 1, 2, and 39 compounds from NANPDB (2-hydroxyseneganolide), AfroDb (ZINC000034518176 and ZINC000095485942), and TCM, respectively. A total of 23 approved drugs, including doramectin, glecaprevir, velpatasvir, ledipasvir, avermectin B1, nafarelin acetate, danoprevir, eltrombopag, lanatoside C, and glycyrrhizin, among others, were also predicted to have potential anti-EBOV activity and can be further explored so that they may be repurposed for EVD treatment. Molecular dynamics simulations coupled with molecular mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann surface area calculations corroborated the stability and good binding affinities of the complexes (−46.97 to −118.9 kJ/mol). The potential lead compounds may have the potential to be developed as anti-EBOV drugs after experimental testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Broni
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 77, Ghana
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), College of Health Sciences (CHS), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 581, Ghana
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Carolyn Ashley
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Joseph Adams
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), College of Health Sciences (CHS), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 581, Ghana
| | - Hammond Manu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 77, Ghana
| | - Ebenezer Aikins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 77, Ghana
| | - Mary Okom
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 77, Ghana
| | - Whelton A. Miller
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Correspondence: (W.A.M.III); (S.K.K.); Tel.: +1(708)-2168451 (W.A.M.III); +23-320-3797922 (S.K.K.)
| | - Michael D. Wilson
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), College of Health Sciences (CHS), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 581, Ghana
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Samuel K. Kwofie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra LG 77, Ghana
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra LG 54, Ghana
- Correspondence: (W.A.M.III); (S.K.K.); Tel.: +1(708)-2168451 (W.A.M.III); +23-320-3797922 (S.K.K.)
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9
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Le H, Spearman P, Waggoner SN, Singh K. Ebola virus protein VP40 stimulates IL-12- and IL-18-dependent activation of human natural killer cells. JCI Insight 2022; 7:158902. [PMID: 35862204 PMCID: PMC9462474 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.158902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulation of activated natural killer (NK) cells in tissues during Ebola virus infection contributes to Ebola virus disease (EVD) pathogenesis. Yet, immunization with Ebola virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising glycoprotein and matrix protein VP40 provides rapid, NK cell–mediated protection against Ebola challenge. We used Ebola VLPs as the viral surrogates to elucidate the molecular mechanism by which Ebola virus triggers heightened NK cell activity. Incubation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells with Ebola VLPs or VP40 protein led to increased expression of IFN-γ, TNF-α, granzyme B, and perforin by CD3–CD56+ NK cells, along with increases in degranulation and cytotoxic activity of these cells. Optimal activation required accessory cells like CD14+ myeloid and CD14– cells and triggered increased secretion of numerous inflammatory cytokines. VP40-induced IFN-γ and TNF-α secretion by NK cells was dependent on IL-12 and IL-18 and suppressed by IL-10. In contrast, their increased degranulation was dependent on IL-12 with little influence of IL-18 or IL-10. These results demonstrate that Ebola VP40 stimulates NK cell functions in an IL-12– and IL-18–dependent manner that involves CD14+ and CD14– accessory cells. These potentially novel findings may help in designing improved intervention strategies required to control viral transmission during Ebola outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung Le
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, United States of America
| | - Paul Spearman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, United States of America
| | - Stephen N Waggoner
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, United States of America
| | - Karnail Singh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, United States of America
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10
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Liu X, Pappas EJ, Husby ML, Motsa BB, Stahelin RV, Pienaar E. Mechanisms of phosphatidylserine influence on viral production: A computational model of Ebola virus matrix protein assembly. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102025. [PMID: 35568195 PMCID: PMC9218153 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ebola virus (EBOV) infections continue to pose a global public health threat, with high mortality rates and sporadic outbreaks in Central and Western Africa. A quantitative understanding of the key processes driving EBOV assembly and budding could provide valuable insights to inform drug development. Here, we use a computational model to evaluate EBOV matrix assembly. Our model focuses on the assembly kinetics of VP40, the matrix protein in EBOV, and its interaction with phosphatidylserine (PS) in the host cell membrane. It has been shown that mammalian cells transfected with VP40-expressing plasmids are capable of producing virus-like particles (VLPs) that closely resemble EBOV virions. Previous studies have also shown that PS levels in the host cell membrane affects VP40 association with the plasma membrane inner leaflet and that lower membrane PS levels result in lower VLP production. Our computational findings indicate that PS may also have a direct influence on VP40 VLP assembly and budding, where a higher PS level will result in a higher VLP budding rate and filament dissociation rate. Our results further suggest that the assembly of VP40 filaments follow the nucleation-elongation theory, where initialization and oligomerization of VP40 are two distinct steps in the assembly process. Our findings advance the current understanding of VP40 VLP formation by identifying new possible mechanisms of PS influence on VP40 assembly. We propose that these mechanisms could inform treatment strategies targeting PS alone or in combination with other VP40 assembly steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Liu
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Ethan J Pappas
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Monica L Husby
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Balindile B Motsa
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Robert V Stahelin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Elsje Pienaar
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
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11
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Structural and Functional Aspects of Ebola Virus Proteins. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10101330. [PMID: 34684279 PMCID: PMC8538763 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Ebola virus (EBOV), member of genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, have a non-segmented, single-stranded RNA that contains seven genes: (a) nucleoprotein (NP), (b) viral protein 35 (VP35), (c) VP40, (d) glycoprotein (GP), (e) VP30, (f) VP24, and (g) RNA polymerase (L). All genes encode for one protein each except GP, producing three pre-proteins due to the transcriptional editing. These pre-proteins are translated into four products, namely: (a) soluble secreted glycoprotein (sGP), (b) Δ-peptide, (c) full-length transmembrane spike glycoprotein (GP), and (d) soluble small secreted glycoprotein (ssGP). Further, shed GP is released from infected cells due to cleavage of GP by tumor necrosis factor α-converting enzyme (TACE). This review presents a detailed discussion on various functional aspects of all EBOV proteins and their residues. An introduction to ebolaviruses and their life cycle is also provided for clarity of the available analysis. We believe that this review will help understand the roles played by different EBOV proteins in the pathogenesis of the disease. It will help in targeting significant protein residues for therapeutic and multi-protein/peptide vaccine development.
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12
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A Conserved Tryptophan in the Ebola Virus Matrix Protein C-Terminal Domain Is Required for Efficient Virus-Like Particle Formation. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9050402. [PMID: 32455873 PMCID: PMC7281420 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9050402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The Ebola virus (EBOV) harbors seven genes, one of which is the matrix protein eVP40, a peripheral protein that is sufficient to induce the formation of virus-like particles from the host cell plasma membrane. eVP40 can form different structures to fulfil different functions during the viral life cycle, although the structural dynamics of eVP40 that warrant dimer, hexamer, and octamer formation are still poorly understood. eVP40 has two conserved Trp residues at positions 95 and 191. The role of Trp95 has been characterized in depth as it serves as an important residue in eVP40 oligomer formation. To gain insight into the functional role of Trp191 in eVP40, we prepared mutations of Trp191 (W191A or W191F) to determine the effects of mutation on eVP40 plasma membrane localization and budding as well as eVP40 oligomerization. These in vitro and cellular experiments were complemented by molecular dynamics simulations of the wild-type (WT) eVP40 structure versus that of W191A. Taken together, Trp is shown to be a critical amino acid at position 191 as mutation to Ala reduces the ability of VP40 to localize to the plasma membrane inner leaflet and form new virus-like particles. Further, mutation of Trp191 to Ala or Phe shifted the in vitro equilibrium to the octamer form by destabilizing Trp191 interactions with nearby residues. This study has shed new light on the importance of interdomain interactions in stability of the eVP40 structure and the critical nature of timing of eVP40 oligomerization for plasma membrane localization and viral budding.
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13
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Proximity proteomics identifies novel function of Rab14 in trafficking of Ebola virus matrix protein VP40. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 527:387-392. [PMID: 32327259 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Ebola virus is a member of Filoviridae family of viruses that causes fetal hemorrhagic fever in human. Matrix protein VP40 of the Ebola virus is involved in multiple stages of viral maturation processes. In order to fully understand the interacting partners of VP40 in host cells, we applied proximity-dependent biotin-identification (BioID) approach to systematically screen for potential proteins at different time points of VP40 expression. By immunoprecipitation and subsequent proteomics analysis, we found over 100 candidate proteins with various cellular components and molecular functions. Among them, we identified Rab14 GTPase that appears to function at the late stage of VP40 expression. Imaging studies demonstrated that VP40 and Rab14 have substantial colocalization when expressed in HeLa cells. Overexpression of the dominant-negative Rab14(S25N) diminished the plasma membrane (PM) localization of VP40. In addition, we found that secreted VP40 protein can be endocytosed into Rab14 positive compartments. In summary, our study provides evidence that Rab14 is a novel regulator of the intracellular trafficking of Ebola virus matrix protein VP40 in HeLa cells.
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14
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Cutrale F, Rodriguez D, Hortigüela V, Chiu CL, Otterstrom J, Mieruszynski S, Seriola A, Larrañaga E, Raya A, Lakadamyali M, Fraser SE, Martinez E, Ojosnegros S. Using enhanced number and brightness to measure protein oligomerization dynamics in live cells. Nat Protoc 2019; 14:616-638. [DOI: 10.1038/s41596-018-0111-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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15
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Gordon TB, Hayward JA, Marsh GA, Baker ML, Tachedjian G. Host and Viral Proteins Modulating Ebola and Marburg Virus Egress. Viruses 2019; 11:v11010025. [PMID: 30609802 PMCID: PMC6357148 DOI: 10.3390/v11010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The filoviruses Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus are among the deadliest viral pathogens known to infect humans, causing emerging diseases with fatality rates of up to 90% during some outbreaks. The replication cycles of these viruses are comprised of numerous complex molecular processes and interactions with their human host, with one key feature being the means by which nascent virions exit host cells to spread to new cells and ultimately to a new host. This review focuses on our current knowledge of filovirus egress and the viral and host factors and processes that are involved. Within the virus, these factors consist of the major matrix protein, viral protein 40 (VP40), which is necessary and sufficient for viral particle release, and nucleocapsid and glycoprotein that interact with VP40 to promote egress. In the host cell, some proteins are hijacked by filoviruses in order to enhance virion budding capacity that include members of the family of E3 ubiquitin ligase and the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) pathway, while others such as tetherin inhibit viral egress. An understanding of these molecular interactions that modulate viral particle egress provides an important opportunity to identify new targets for the development of antivirals to prevent and treat filovirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamsin B Gordon
- Health Security Program, Life Sciences Discipline, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia.
| | - Joshua A Hayward
- Health Security Program, Life Sciences Discipline, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia.
| | - Glenn A Marsh
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia.
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Health and Biosecurity Business Unit, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia.
| | - Michelle L Baker
- CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Health and Biosecurity Business Unit, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia.
| | - Gilda Tachedjian
- Health Security Program, Life Sciences Discipline, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne VIC 3010, Australia.
- School of Science, College of Science, Engineering and Health, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
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16
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Abstract
The capsid protein is a promising target for the development of therapeutic anti-virus agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding-Yi Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry
- Jilin University
- Changchun
- China
| | - Ya-Rong Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry
- Jilin University
- Changchun
- China
| | - Xianghui Yu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine
- School of Life Sciences
- Jilin University
- Changchun
- China
| | - Yuqing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry
- Jilin University
- Changchun
- China
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17
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Saranya V, Shankar R, Vijayakumar S. Structural exploration of viral matrix protein 40 interaction with the transition metal ions (Ag+ and Cu2+). J Biomol Struct Dyn 2018; 37:2875-2896. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2018.1498803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- V. Saranya
- Department of Physics, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
| | - R. Shankar
- Department of Physics, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
| | - S. Vijayakumar
- Department of Medical Physics, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
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18
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Filovirus proteins for antiviral drug discovery: Structure/function of proteins involved in assembly and budding. Antiviral Res 2018; 150:183-192. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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19
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Del Vecchio K, Frick CT, Gc JB, Oda SI, Gerstman BS, Saphire EO, Chapagain PP, Stahelin RV. A cationic, C-terminal patch and structural rearrangements in Ebola virus matrix VP40 protein control its interactions with phosphatidylserine. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:3335-3349. [PMID: 29348171 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.816280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Ebola virus (EBOV) is a filamentous lipid-enveloped virus that causes hemorrhagic fever with a high fatality rate. Viral protein 40 (VP40) is the major EBOV matrix protein and regulates viral budding from the plasma membrane. VP40 is a transformer/morpheein that can structurally rearrange its native homodimer into either a hexameric filament that facilitates viral budding or an RNA-binding octameric ring that regulates viral transcription. VP40 associates with plasma-membrane lipids such as phosphatidylserine (PS), and this association is critical to budding from the host cell. However, it is poorly understood how different VP40 structures interact with PS, what essential residues are involved in this association, and whether VP40 has true selectivity for PS among different glycerophospholipid headgroups. In this study, we used lipid-binding assays, MD simulations, and cellular imaging to investigate the molecular basis of VP40-PS interactions and to determine whether different VP40 structures (i.e. monomer, dimer, and octamer) can interact with PS-containing membranes. Results from quantitative analysis indicated that VP40 associates with PS vesicles via a cationic patch in the C-terminal domain (Lys224, 225 and Lys274, 275). Substitutions of these residues with alanine reduced PS-vesicle binding by >40-fold and abrogated VP40 localization to the plasma membrane. Dimeric VP40 had 2-fold greater affinity for PS-containing membranes than the monomer, whereas binding of the VP40 octameric ring was reduced by nearly 10-fold. Taken together, these results suggest the different VP40 structures known to form in the viral life cycle harbor different affinities for PS-containing membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Del Vecchio
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Cary T Frick
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | | | | | | | - Erica Ollmann Saphire
- the Department of Immunology and Microbiology and.,The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, and
| | - Prem P Chapagain
- the Department of Physics and.,Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Robert V Stahelin
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, .,the Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
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20
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Baikerikar S. Curcumin and Natural Derivatives Inhibit Ebola Viral Proteins: An In silico Approach. Pharmacognosy Res 2017; 9:S15-S22. [PMID: 29333037 PMCID: PMC5757320 DOI: 10.4103/pr.pr_30_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ebola viral disease is a severe and mostly fatal disease in humans caused by Ebola virus. This virus belongs to family Filoviridae and is a single-stranded negative-sense virus. There is no single treatment for this disease which puts forth the need to identify new therapy to control and treat this fatal condition. Curcumin, one of the bioactives of turmeric, has proven antiviral property. OBJECTIVE The current study evaluates the inhibitory activity of curcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and tetrahydrocurcumin against Zaire Ebola viral proteins (VPs). MATERIALS AND METHODS Molecular simulation of the Ebola VPs followed by docking studies with ligands comprising curcumin and related compounds was performed. RESULTS The highest binding activity for VP40 is -6.3 kcal/mol, VP35 is -8.3 kcal/mol, VP30 is -8.0 kcal/mol, VP24 is -7.7 kcal/mol, glycoprotein is -7.1 kcal/mol, and nucleoprotein is 6.8 kcal/mol. CONCLUSION Bisdemethoxycurcumin shows better binding affinity than curcumin for most VPs. Metabolite tetrahydrocurcumin also shows binding affinity comparable to curcumin. These results indicate that curcumin, curcuminoids, and metabolite tetrahydrocurcumin can be potential lead compounds for developing a new therapy for Ebola viral disease. SUMMARY Curcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin, and demethoxycurcumin are active constituents of turmeric. Tetrahydrocurcumin is the major metabolite of curcumin formed in the body after consumption and absorption of curcuminoidsCurcuminoids have proven antiviral activityBisdemethoxycurcumin showed maximum inhibition of Ebola viral proteins (VPs) among the curcuminoids in the docking procedure with a docking score as high as -8.3 kcal/molTetrahydrocurcumin showed inhibitory activity against Ebola VPs close to that of curcumin's inhibitory action. Abbreviations Used: EBOV: Ebola virus, GP: Glycoprotein, NP: Nucleoprotein, NPT: Isothermal-isobaric Ensemble, amount of substance (N), pressure (P) and temperature (T) conserved, NVE: Canonical ensemble, amount of substance (N), volume (V) and temperature (T) conserved, VP: Viral protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Baikerikar
- Department of Biotechnology, Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
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21
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Balmith M, Soliman MES. Non-active site mutations disturb the loop dynamics, dimerization, viral budding and egress of VP40 of the Ebola virus. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2017; 13:585-597. [PMID: 28170013 DOI: 10.1039/c6mb00803h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The first account of the dynamic features of the loop region of VP40 of the Ebola virus (EboV) using accelerated molecular dynamics (aMD) simulations is reported herein. Due to its major role in the Ebola life cycle, VP40 is considered a promising therapeutic target. The available experimental data on the N-terminal domain (NTD) loop indicates that mutations K127A, T129A and N130A demonstrate an unrecognized role for NTD-plasma membrane (PM) interaction for efficient VP40-PM localization, oligomerization, matrix assembly and egress. Despite experimental results, the molecular description of VP40 and the information it can provide still remain vague. Therefore, to gain further molecular insight into the effect of mutations on the loop region of VP40 and its effects on the overall protein conformation and VP40 dimerization, aMD simulations and post-dynamic analyses were employed for wildtype (WT) and mutant systems. The results showed significant variations in the presence of mutations as per RMSF, RMSD, Rg, PCA and distance calculations in comparison to the WT. These results could provide researchers with insight with regards to the conformational aspects concerning VP40 and its close relation to the experimental data. We believe that the results presented in this study will ultimately provide a useful understanding of the structural landscape of the loop region of VP40, which would contribute towards the discovery of novel EboV inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa Balmith
- Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Research Group, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4001, South Africa.
| | - Mahmoud E S Soliman
- Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Research Group, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4001, South Africa. and Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt and College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, FAMU, Tallahassee, Florida 32307, USA
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22
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Pacheco DADMRA, Rodrigues AAG, Silva CMLD. Ebola virus - from neglected threat to global emergency state. Rev Assoc Med Bras (1992) 2017; 62:458-67. [PMID: 27656857 DOI: 10.1590/1806-9282.62.05.458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This review aims to update knowledge about Ebola virus disease (EVD) and recent advances in its diagnosis, treatment and prevention. METHOD A literature review was performed using the following databases: ISI Web of Knowledge, PubMed, IRIS, Scopus and the websites of the CDC and the WHO. Additionally, we have included articles and reports referenced in the basic literature search, and news that were considered relevant. RESULTS The Ebola virus, endemic in some parts of Africa, is responsible for a severe form of hemorrhagic fever in humans; bats are probably its natural reservoir. It is an extremely virulent virus and easily transmitted by bodily fluids. EVD's complex pathophysiology, characterized by immunosuppression as well as stimulation of an intense inflammatory response, results in a syndrome similar to septic shock. The diagnosis is difficult due to the initial symptoms that mimic other diseases. Despite the high mortality rates that can amount to 90%, a prophylaxis (chemical or vaccine) or effective treatment does not exist. Two vaccines and experimental therapies are being developed for the prevention and treatment of EVD. CONCLUSION Although the virus is known for about 40 years, the lack of knowledge obtained and the disinterest of government authorities in the countries involved justify the state of emergency currently exists regarding this infectious agent. Only the coordination of multiple entities and the effective commitment of the international community will facilitate the control and effective prevention of EVD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Acácio Agostinho Gonçalves Rodrigues
- PhD - Director of the Department and Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto. MD, Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Burns Unit, Hospital de São João, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carmen Maria Lisboa da Silva
- PhD - Professor of the Department and Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto. MD, Department of Dermatovenereology, Hospital São João, Porto, Portugal
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23
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Balmith M, Soliman MES. VP40 of the Ebola Virus as a Target for EboV Therapy: Comprehensive Conformational and Inhibitor Binding Landscape from Accelerated Molecular Dynamics. Cell Biochem Biophys 2017; 75:65-78. [PMID: 28144904 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-017-0783-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The first account of the dynamic features of the loop region of VP40 of the Ebola virus was studied using accelerated molecular dynamics simulations and reported herein. Among the proteins of the Ebola virus, the matrix protein (VP40) plays a significant role in the virus lifecycle thereby making it a promising therapeutic target. Of interest is the newly elucidated N-terminal domain loop region of VP40 comprising residues K127, T129, and N130 which when mutated to alanine have demonstrated an unrecognized role for N-terminal domain-plasma membrane interaction for efficient VP40-plasma membrane localization, oligomerization, matrix assembly, and egress. The molecular understanding of the conformational features of VP40 in complex with a known inhibitor still remains elusive. Using accelerated molecular dynamics approaches, we conducted a comparative study on VP40 apo and bound systems to understand the conformational features of VP40 at the molecular level and to determine the effect of inhibitor binding with the aid of a number of post-dynamic analytical tools. Significant features were seen in the presence of an inhibitor as per molecular mechanics/generalized born surface area binding free energy calculations. Results revealed that inhibitor binding to VP40 reduces the flexibility and mobility of the protein as supported by root mean square fluctuation and root mean square deviation calculations. The study revealed a characteristic "twisting" motion and coiling of the loop region of VP40 accompanied by conformational changes in the dimer interface upon inhibitor binding. We believe that results presented in this study will ultimately provide useful insight into the binding landscape of VP40 which could assist researchers in the discovery of potent Ebola virus inhibitors for anti-Ebola therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa Balmith
- Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Research Group, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Mahmoud E S Soliman
- Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Research Group, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4001, South Africa.
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24
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Kirchdoerfer RN, Wasserman H, Amarasinghe GK, Saphire EO. Filovirus Structural Biology: The Molecules in the Machine. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2017; 411:381-417. [PMID: 28795188 DOI: 10.1007/82_2017_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, we describe what is known thus far about the structures and functions of the handful of proteins encoded by filovirus genomes. Amongst the fascinating findings of the last decade is the plurality of functions and structures that these polypeptides can adopt. Many of the encoded proteins can play multiple, distinct roles in the virus life cycle, although the mechanisms by which these functions are determined and controlled remain mostly veiled. Further, some filovirus proteins are multistructural: adopting different oligomeric assemblies and sometimes, different tertiary structures to achieve their separate, and equally essential functions. Structures, and the functions they dictate, are described for components of the nucleocapsid, the matrix, and the surface and secreted glycoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert N Kirchdoerfer
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Hal Wasserman
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Gaya K Amarasinghe
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Erica Ollmann Saphire
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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25
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Gc JB, Johnson KA, Husby ML, Frick CT, Gerstman BS, Stahelin RV, Chapagain PP. Interdomain salt-bridges in the Ebola virus protein VP40 and their role in domain association and plasma membrane localization. Protein Sci 2016; 25:1648-58. [PMID: 27328459 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The Ebola virus protein VP40 is a transformer protein that possesses an extraordinary ability to accomplish multiple functions by transforming into various oligomeric conformations. The disengagement of the C-terminal domain (CTD) from the N-terminal domain (NTD) is a crucial step in the conformational transformations of VP40 from the dimeric form to the hexameric form or octameric ring structure. Here, we use various molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate the dynamics of the VP40 protein and the roles of interdomain interactions that are important for the domain-domain association and dissociation, and report on experimental results of the behavior of mutant variants of VP40. The MD studies find that various salt-bridge interactions modulate the VP40 domain dynamics by providing conformational specificity through interdomain interactions. The MD simulations reveal a novel salt-bridge between D45-K326 when the CTD participates in a latch-like interaction with the NTD. The D45-K326 salt-bridge interaction is proposed to help domain-domain association, whereas the E76-K291 interaction is important for stabilizing the closed-form structure. The effects of the removal of important VP40 salt-bridges on plasma membrane (PM) localization, VP40 oligomerization, and virus like particle (VLP) budding assays were investigated experimentally by live cell imaging using an EGFP-tagged VP40 system. It is found that the mutations K291E and D45K show enhanced PM localization but D45K significantly reduced VLP formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeevan B Gc
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199
| | - Kristen A Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, the Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556.,Boler-Parseghian Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556
| | - Monica L Husby
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, the Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556.,Boler-Parseghian Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556
| | - Cary T Frick
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, the Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556.,Boler-Parseghian Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556
| | - Bernard S Gerstman
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199.,Biomolecular Science Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199
| | - Robert V Stahelin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, the Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556.,Boler-Parseghian Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine-South Bend, South Bend, Indiana, 46617
| | - Prem P Chapagain
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199.,Biomolecular Science Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199
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26
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The Ebola Virus matrix protein, VP40, requires phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) for extensive oligomerization at the plasma membrane and viral egress. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19125. [PMID: 26753796 PMCID: PMC4709572 DOI: 10.1038/srep19125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
VP40 is one of eight proteins encoded by the Ebola Virus (EBOV) and serves as the primary matrix protein, forming virus like particles (VLPs) from mammalian cells without the need for other EBOV proteins. While VP40 is required for viral assembly and budding from host cells during infection, the mechanisms that target VP40 to the plasma membrane are not well understood. Phosphatidylserine is required for VP40 plasma membrane binding, VP40 hexamer formation, and VLP egress, However, PS also becomes exposed on the outer membrane leaflet at sites of VP40 budding, raising the question of how VP40 maintains an interaction with the plasma membrane inner leaflet when PS is flipped to the opposite side. To address this question, cellular and in vitro assays were employed to determine if phosphoinositides are important for efficient VP40 localization to the plasma membrane. Cellular studies demonstrated that PI(4,5)P2 was an important component of VP40 assembly at the plasma membrane and subsequent virus like particle formation. Additionally, PI(4,5)P2 was required for formation of extensive oligomers of VP40, suggesting PS and PI(4,5)P2 have different roles in VP40 assembly where PS regulates formation of hexamers from VP40 dimers and PI(4,5)P2 stabilizes and/or induces extensive VP40 oligomerization at the plasma membrane.
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The Ebola Virus Matrix Protein VP40 Interacts With Several Host Protein Networks to Facilitate Viral Replication. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40588-015-0022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Jun SR, Leuze MR, Nookaew I, Uberbacher EC, Land M, Zhang Q, Wanchai V, Chai J, Nielsen M, Trolle T, Lund O, Buzard GS, Pedersen TD, Wassenaar TM, Ussery DW. Ebolavirus comparative genomics. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2015; 39:764-78. [PMID: 26175035 PMCID: PMC4551310 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuv031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa is the largest documented for this virus. To examine the dynamics of this genome, we compare more than 100 currently available ebolavirus genomes to each other and to other viral genomes. Based on oligomer frequency analysis, the family Filoviridae forms a distinct group from all other sequenced viral genomes. All filovirus genomes sequenced to date encode proteins with similar functions and gene order, although there is considerable divergence in sequences between the three genera Ebolavirus, Cuevavirus and Marburgvirus within the family Filoviridae. Whereas all ebolavirus genomes are quite similar (multiple sequences of the same strain are often identical), variation is most common in the intergenic regions and within specific areas of the genes encoding the glycoprotein (GP), nucleoprotein (NP) and polymerase (L). We predict regions that could contain epitope-binding sites, which might be good vaccine targets. This information, combined with glycosylation sites and experimentally determined epitopes, can identify the most promising regions for the development of therapeutic strategies.This manuscript has been authored by UT-Battelle, LLC under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes. The Department of Energy will provide public access to these results of federally sponsored research in accordance with the DOE Public Access Plan (http://energy.gov/downloads/doe-public-access-plan).
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Affiliation(s)
- Se-Ran Jun
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA Joint Institute for Computational Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Michael R Leuze
- Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Computer Science Research Group, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Intawat Nookaew
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Edward C Uberbacher
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Miriam Land
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Qian Zhang
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA UT-ORNL Graduate School of Genome Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Visanu Wanchai
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Juanjuan Chai
- Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Computer Science Research Group, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Morten Nielsen
- Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, The Technical University of Denmark, Building 208, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, San Martín, B 1650 HMP, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Thomas Trolle
- Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, The Technical University of Denmark, Building 208, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ole Lund
- Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, The Technical University of Denmark, Building 208, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Thomas D Pedersen
- Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, The Technical University of Denmark, Building 208, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark Assays, Cultures and Enzymes Division, Chr. Hansen A/S, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Trudy M Wassenaar
- Molecular Microbiology and Genomics Consultants, Tannenstr 7, D-55576 Zotzenheim, Germany
| | - David W Ussery
- Comparative Genomics Group, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA UT-ORNL Graduate School of Genome Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, The Technical University of Denmark, Building 208, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark
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Abstract
Ebolavirus is the pathogen for Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF). This disease exhibits a high fatality rate and has recently reached a historically epidemic proportion in West Africa. Out of the 5 known Ebolavirus species, only Reston ebolavirus has lost human pathogenicity, while retaining the ability to cause EHF in long-tailed macaque. Significant efforts have been spent to determine the three-dimensional (3D) structures of Ebolavirus proteins, to study their interaction with host proteins, and to identify the functional motifs in these viral proteins. Here, in light of these experimental results, we apply computational analysis to predict the 3D structures and functional sites for Ebolavirus protein domains with unknown structure, including a zinc-finger domain of VP30, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalytic domain and a methyltransferase domain of protein L. In addition, we compare sequences of proteins that interact with Ebolavirus proteins from RESTV-resistant primates with those from RESTV-susceptible monkeys. The host proteins that interact with GP and VP35 show an elevated level of sequence divergence between the RESTV-resistant and RESTV-susceptible species, suggesting that they may be responsible for host specificity. Meanwhile, we detect variable positions in protein sequences that are likely associated with the loss of human pathogenicity in RESTV, map them onto the 3D structures and compare their positions to known functional sites. VP35 and VP30 are significantly enriched in these potential pathogenicity determinants and the clustering of such positions on the surfaces of VP35 and GP suggests possible uncharacterized interaction sites with host proteins that contribute to the virulence of Ebolavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Cong
- a Departments of Biophysics and Biochemistry ; University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas ; Dallas , TX USA
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Host Cell Plasma Membrane Phosphatidylserine Regulates the Assembly and Budding of Ebola Virus. J Virol 2015; 89:9440-53. [PMID: 26136573 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01087-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Lipid-enveloped viruses replicate and bud from the host cell where they acquire their lipid coat. Ebola virus, which buds from the plasma membrane of the host cell, causes viral hemorrhagic fever and has a high fatality rate. To date, little has been known about how budding and egress of Ebola virus are mediated at the plasma membrane. We have found that the lipid phosphatidylserine (PS) regulates the assembly of Ebola virus matrix protein VP40. VP40 binds PS-containing membranes with nanomolar affinity, and binding of PS regulates VP40 localization and oligomerization on the plasma membrane inner leaflet. Further, alteration of PS levels in mammalian cells inhibits assembly and egress of VP40. Notably, interactions of VP40 with the plasma membrane induced exposure of PS on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane at sites of egress, whereas PS is typically found only on the inner leaflet. Taking the data together, we present a model accounting for the role of plasma membrane PS in assembly of Ebola virus-like particles. IMPORTANCE The lipid-enveloped Ebola virus causes severe infection with a high mortality rate and currently lacks FDA-approved therapeutics or vaccines. Ebola virus harbors just seven genes in its genome, and there is a critical requirement for acquisition of its lipid envelope from the plasma membrane of the human cell that it infects during the replication process. There is, however, a dearth of information available on the required contents of this envelope for egress and subsequent attachment and entry. Here we demonstrate that plasma membrane phosphatidylserine is critical for Ebola virus budding from the host cell plasma membrane. This report, to our knowledge, is the first to highlight the role of lipids in human cell membranes in the Ebola virus replication cycle and draws a clear link between selective binding and transport of a lipid across the membrane of the human cell and use of that lipid for subsequent viral entry.
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Madara JJ, Han Z, Ruthel G, Freedman BD, Harty RN. The multifunctional Ebola virus VP40 matrix protein is a promising therapeutic target. Future Virol 2015; 10:537-546. [PMID: 26120351 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.15.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The highly virulent nature of Ebola virus, evident from the 2014 West African pandemic, highlights the need to develop vaccines or therapeutic agents that limit the pathogenesis and spread of this virus. While vaccines represent an obvious approach, targeting virus interactions with host proteins that critically regulate the virus lifecycle also represent important therapeutic strategies. Among Ebola virus proteins at this critical interface is its matrix protein, VP40, which is abundantly expressed during infection and plays a number of critical roles in the viral lifecycle. In addition to regulating viral transcription, VP40 coordinates virion assembly and budding from infected cells. Details of the molecular mechanisms underpinning these essential functions are currently being elucidated, with a particular emphasis on its interactions with host proteins that control virion assembly and egress. This review focuses on the strategies geared toward developing novel therapeutic agents that target VP40-specific control of host functions critical to virion transcription, assembly and egress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Madara
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ziying Han
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Gordon Ruthel
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Bruce D Freedman
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ronald N Harty
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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