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Salahlou R, Farajnia S, Bargahi N, Bakhtiyari N, Elmi F, Shahgolzari M, Fiering S, Venkataraman S. Development of a novel multi‑epitope vaccine against the pathogenic human polyomavirus V6/7 using reverse vaccinology. BMC Infect Dis 2024; 24:177. [PMID: 38336665 PMCID: PMC10854057 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-024-09046-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human polyomaviruses contribute to human oncogenesis through persistent infections, but currently there is no effective preventive measure against the malignancies caused by this virus. Therefore, the development of a safe and effective vaccine against HPyV is of high priority. METHODS First, the proteomes of 2 polyomavirus species (HPyV6 and HPyV7) were downloaded from the NCBI database for the selection of the target proteins. The epitope identification process focused on selecting proteins that were crucial, associated with virulence, present on the surface, antigenic, non-toxic, and non-homologous with the human proteome. Then, the immunoinformatic methods were used to identify cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL), helper T-lymphocyte (HTL), and B-cell epitopes from the target antigens, which could be used to create epitope-based vaccine. The physicochemical features of the designed vaccine were predicted through various online servers. The binding pattern and stability between the vaccine candidate and Toll-like receptors were analyzed through molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, while the immunogenicity of the designed vaccines was assessed using immune simulation. RESULTS Online tools were utilized to forecast the most optimal epitope from the immunogenic targets, including LTAg, VP1, and VP1 antigens of HPyV6 and HPyV7. A multi-epitope vaccine was developed by combining 10 CTL, 7 HTL, and 6 LBL epitopes with suitable linkers and adjuvant. The vaccine displayed 98.35% of the world's population coverage. The 3D model of the vaccine structure revealed that the majority of residues (87.7%) were located in favored regions of the Ramachandran plot. The evaluation of molecular docking and MD simulation revealed that the constructed vaccine exhibits a strong binding (-1414.0 kcal/mol) towards the host's TLR4. Moreover, the vaccine-TLR complexes remained stable throughout the dynamic conditions present in the natural environment. The immune simulation results demonstrated that the vaccine design had the capacity to elicit robust immune responses in the host. CONCLUSION The multi-parametric analysis revealed that the designed vaccine is capable of inducing sustained immunity against the selected polyomaviruses, although further in-vivo investigations are needed to verify its effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Salahlou
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Safar Farajnia
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Nasrin Bargahi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Nasim Bakhtiyari
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Faranak Elmi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, and Dartmouth Cancer Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
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Sami SA, Marma KKS, Mahmud S, Khan MAN, Albogami S, El-Shehawi AM, Rakib A, Chakraborty A, Mohiuddin M, Dhama K, Uddin MMN, Hossain MK, Tallei TE, Emran TB. Designing of a Multi-epitope Vaccine against the Structural Proteins of Marburg Virus Exploiting the Immunoinformatics Approach. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:32043-32071. [PMID: 34870027 PMCID: PMC8638006 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c04817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Marburg virus disease (MVD) caused by the Marburg virus (MARV) generally appears with flu-like symptoms and leads to severe hemorrhagic fever. It spreads via direct contact with infected individuals or animals. Despite being considered to be less threatening in terms of appearances and the number of infected patients, the high fatality rate of this pathogenic virus is a major concern. Until now, no vaccine has been developed to combat this deadly virus. Therefore, vaccination for this virus is necessary to reduce its mortality. Our current investigation focuses on the design and formulation of a multi-epitope vaccine based on the structural proteins of MARV employing immunoinformatics approaches. The screening of potential T-cell and B-cell epitopes from the seven structural proteins of MARV was carried out through specific selection parameters. Afterward, we compiled the shortlisted epitopes by attaching them to an appropriate adjuvant and linkers. Population coverage analysis, conservancy analysis, and MHC cluster analysis of the shortlisted epitopes were satisfactory. Importantly, physicochemical characteristics, human homology assessment, and structure validation of the vaccine construct delineated convenient outcomes. We implemented disulfide bond engineering to stabilize the tertiary or quaternary interactions. Furthermore, stability and physical movements of the vaccine protein were explored using normal-mode analysis. The immune simulation study of the vaccine complexes also exhibited significant results. Additionally, the protein-protein docking and molecular dynamics simulation of the final construct exhibited a higher affinity toward toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4). From simulation trajectories, multiple descriptors, namely, root mean square deviations (rmsd), radius of gyration (Rg), root mean square fluctuations (RMSF), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), and hydrogen bonds, have been taken into account to demonstrate the inflexible and rigid nature of receptor molecules and the constructed vaccine. Inclusively, our findings suggested the vaccine constructs' ability to regulate promising immune responses against MARV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saad Ahmed Sami
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Kay Kay Shain Marma
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Shafi Mahmud
- Microbiology
Laboratory, Bioinformatics Division, Department of Genetic Engineering
and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Asif Nadim Khan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Sarah Albogami
- Department
of Biotechnology, College of Science, Taif
University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed M. El-Shehawi
- Department
of Biotechnology, College of Science, Taif
University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Rakib
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Agnila Chakraborty
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Mostafah Mohiuddin
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Mir Muhammad Nasir Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammed Kamrul Hossain
- Department of Pharmacy,
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Trina Ekawati Tallei
- Department of Biology,
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, North Sulawesi 95115, Indonesia
| | - Talha Bin Emran
- Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chittagong 4381, Bangladesh
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3
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Obaidullah AJ, Alanazi MM, Alsaif NA, Albassam H, Almehizia AA, Alqahtani AM, Mahmud S, Sami SA, Emran TB. Immunoinformatics-guided design of a multi-epitope vaccine based on the structural proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. RSC Adv 2021; 11:18103-18121. [PMID: 35480208 PMCID: PMC9033181 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra02885e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), resulting in a contagious respiratory tract infection that has become a global burden since the end of 2019. Notably, fewer patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 progress from acute disease onset to death compared with the progression rate associated with two other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Several research organizations and pharmaceutical industries have attempted to develop successful vaccine candidates for the prevention of COVID-19. However, increasing evidence indicates that the SARS-CoV-2 genome undergoes frequent mutation; thus, an adequate analysis of the viral strain remains necessary to construct effective vaccines. The current study attempted to design a multi-epitope vaccine by utilizing an approach based on the SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins. We predicted the antigenic T- and B-lymphocyte responses to four structural proteins after screening all structural proteins according to specific characteristics. The predicted epitopes were combined using suitable adjuvants and linkers, and a secondary structure profile indicated that the vaccine shared similar properties with the native protein. Importantly, the molecular docking analysis and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the constructed vaccine possessed a high affinity for toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). In addition, multiple descriptors were obtained from the simulation trajectories, including the root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), root-mean-square fluctuation (RMSF), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), and radius of gyration (R g), demonstrating the rigid nature and inflexibility of the vaccine and receptor molecules. In addition, codon optimization, based on Escherichia coli K12, was used to determine the GC content and the codon adaptation index (CAI) value, which further followed for the incorporation into the cloning vector pET28+(a). Collectively, these findings suggested that the constructed vaccine could be used to modulate the immune reaction against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad J Obaidullah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University P.O. Box 2457 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed M Alanazi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University P.O. Box 2457 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
| | - Nawaf A Alsaif
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University P.O. Box 2457 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
| | - Hussam Albassam
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University P.O. Box 2457 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulrahman A Almehizia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University P.O. Box 2457 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali M Alqahtani
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University Abha 62529 Saudi Arabia
| | - Shafi Mahmud
- Microbiology Laboratory, Bioinformatics Division, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi Rajshahi 6205 Bangladesh
| | - Saad Ahmed Sami
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong Chittagong 4331 Bangladesh
| | - Talha Bin Emran
- Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Chittagong 4381 Bangladesh
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Abass OA, Timofeev VI, Sarkar B, Onobun DO, Ogunsola SO, Aiyenuro AE, Aborode AT, Aigboje AE, Omobolanle BN, Imolele AG, Abiodun AA. Immunoinformatics analysis to design novel epitope based vaccine candidate targeting the glycoprotein and nucleoprotein of Lassa mammarenavirus (LASMV) using strains from Nigeria. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2021; 40:7283-7302. [PMID: 33719908 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1896387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Lassa mammarenavirus (LASMV) is responsible for a specific type of acute viral hemorrhagic fever known as Lassa fever. Lack of effective treatments and counter-measures against the virus has resulted in a high mortality rate in its endemic regions. Therefore, in this study, a novel epitope-based vaccine has been designed using the methods of immunoinformatics targeting the glycoprotein and nucleoprotein of the virus. After numerous robust analyses, two CTL epitopes, eight HTL epitopes and seven B-cell epitopes were finally selected for constructing the vaccine. All these most promising epitopes were found to be antigenic, non-allergenic, nontoxic and non-human homolog, which made them suitable for designing the subunit vaccine. Furthermore, the selected T-cell epitopes which were found to be fully conserved across different isolates of the virus, were also considered for final vaccine construction. After that, numerous validation experiments, i.e. molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation and immune simulation were conducted, which predicted that our designed vaccine should be stable within the biological environment and effective in combating the LASMV infection. In the end, codon adaptation and in silico cloning studies were performed to design a recombinant plasmid for producing the vaccine industrially. However, further in vitro and in vivo assessments should be done on the constructed vaccine to finally confirm its safety and efficacy.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ohilebo Abdulateef Abass
- Department of Bioinformatics & Computational Biology, Centre for BioCode, Benin, Nigeria.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria
| | - Vladimir I Timofeev
- Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography of Federal Scientific Research Centre "Crystallography and Photonics" of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Bishajit Sarkar
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Desmond Odiamehi Onobun
- Department of Bioinformatics & Computational Biology, Centre for BioCode, Benin, Nigeria.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria
| | | | | | - Abdullahi Tunde Aborode
- Research & Development, Shaping Women in STEM (SWIS) Africa, Lagos, Nigeria.,Research & Development, Healthy Africans Platform, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | | | | | | | - Alade Adebowale Abiodun
- Bio-Computing Research Unit, Molecular Biology & Simulations (Mols & Sims) Centre, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
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Kulkarni N, Shinde SD, Jadhav GS, Adsare DR, Rao K, Kachhia M, Maingle M, Patil SP, Arya N, Sahu B. Peptide-Chitosan Engineered Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2021; 32:448-465. [PMID: 33656319 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.1c00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Peptides are signaling epitopes that control many vital biological events. Increased specificity, synthetic feasibility with concomitant lack of toxicity, and immunogenicity make this emerging class of biomolecules suitable for different applications including therapeutics, diagnostics, and biomedical engineering. Further, chitosan, a naturally occurring linear polymer composed of d-glucosamine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine units, possesses anti-microbial, muco-adhesive, and hemostatic properties along with excellent biocompatibility. As a result, chitosan finds application in drug/gene delivery, tissue engineering, and bioimaging. Despite these applications, chitosan demonstrates limited cell adhesion and lacks biosignaling. Therefore, peptide-chitosan hybrids have emerged as a new class of biomaterial with improved biosignaling properties and cell adhesion properties. As a result, recent studies encompass increased application of peptide-chitosan hybrids as composites or conjugates in drug delivery, cell therapy, and tissue engineering and as anti-microbial material. This review discusses the recent investigations involving chitosan-peptide materials and uncovers various aspects of these interesting hybrid materials for biomedical applications.
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Samad A, Ahammad F, Nain Z, Alam R, Imon RR, Hasan M, Rahman MS. Designing a multi-epitope vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: an immunoinformatics approach. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 40:14-30. [PMID: 32677533 PMCID: PMC7441805 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1792347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ongoing COVID-19 outbreak has raised a drastic challenge to global public health
security. Most of the patients with COVID-19 suffer from mild flu-like illnesses such as
cold and fever; however, few percentages of the patients progress from severe illness to
death, mostly in an immunocompromised individual. The causative agent of COVID-19 is an
RNA virus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Despite
these debilitating conditions, no medication to stop the disease progression or
vaccination is available till now. Therefore, we aimed to formulate a multi-epitope
vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 by utilizing an immunoinformatics approach. For this purpose,
we used the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein to determine the immunodominant T- and B-cell
epitopes. After rigorous assessment, we designed a vaccine construct using four potential
epitopes from each of the three epitope classes such as cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, helper
T-lymphocyte, and linear B-lymphocyte epitopes. The designed vaccine was antigenic,
immunogenic, and non-allergenic with suitable physicochemical properties and has higher
solubility. More importantly, the predicted vaccine structure was similar to the native
protein. Further investigations indicated a strong and stable binding interaction between
the vaccine and the toll-like receptor (TLR4). Strong binding stability and structural
compactness were also evident in molecular dynamics simulation. Furthermore, the
computer-generated immune simulation showed that the vaccine could trigger real-life-like
immune responses upon administration into humans. Finally, codon optimization based on
Escherichia coli K12 resulted in optimal GC content and
higher CAI value followed by incorporating it into the cloning vector pET28+(a). Overall,
these results suggest that the designed peptide vaccine can serve as an excellent
prophylactic candidate against SARS-CoV-2. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdus Samad
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
| | - Foysal Ahammad
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh.,Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zulkar Nain
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, East West University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.,Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh
| | - Rahat Alam
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
| | - Raihan Rahman Imon
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
| | - Mahadi Hasan
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
| | - Md Shahedur Rahman
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
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Mohamed YS, Borthwick NJ, Moyo N, Murakoshi H, Akahoshi T, Siliquini F, Hannoun Z, Crook A, Hayes P, Fast PE, Mutua G, Jaoko W, Silva-Arrieta S, Llano A, Brander C, Takiguchi M, Hanke T. Specificity of CD8 + T-Cell Responses Following Vaccination with Conserved Regions of HIV-1 in Nairobi, Kenya. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:E260. [PMID: 32485938 PMCID: PMC7349992 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sub-Saharan Africa carries the biggest burden of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)/AIDS epidemic and is in an urgent need of an effective vaccine. CD8+ T cells are an important component of the host immune response to HIV-1 and may need to be harnessed if a vaccine is to be effective. CD8+ T cells recognize human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-associated viral epitopes and the HLA alleles vary significantly among different ethnic groups. It follows that definition of HIV-1-derived peptides recognized by CD8+ T cells in the geographically relevant regions will critically guide vaccine development. Here, we study fine details of CD8+ T-cell responses elicited in HIV-1/2-uninfected individuals in Nairobi, Kenya, who received a candidate vaccine delivering conserved regions of HIV-1 proteins called HIVconsv. Using 10-day cell lines established by in vitro peptide restimulation of cryopreserved PBMC and stably HLA-transfected 721.221/C1R cell lines, we confirm experimentally many already defined epitopes, for a number of epitopes we define the restricting HLA molecule(s) and describe four novel HLA-epitope pairs. We also identify specific dominance patterns, a promiscuous T-cell epitope and a rescue of suboptimal T-cell epitope induction in vivo by its functional variant, which all together inform vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yehia S. Mohamed
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11823, Egypt
| | - Nicola J. Borthwick
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
| | - Nathifa Moyo
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
| | - Hayato Murakoshi
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan; (H.M.); (T.A.); (M.T.)
| | - Tomohiro Akahoshi
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan; (H.M.); (T.A.); (M.T.)
| | - Francesca Siliquini
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
| | - Zara Hannoun
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
| | - Alison Crook
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
| | - Peter Hayes
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative IAVI-Human Immunology Laboratory, Imperial College London, London SW10 9NH, UK;
| | - Patricia E. Fast
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative-New York, New York, NY 10004, USA;
| | - Gaudensia Mutua
- KAVI-Institute of Clinical Research, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 19676 00202, Kenya; (G.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Walter Jaoko
- KAVI-Institute of Clinical Research, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 19676 00202, Kenya; (G.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Sandra Silva-Arrieta
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute-HIVACAT, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Barcelona, Spain; (S.S.-A.); (A.L.); (C.B.)
| | - Anuska Llano
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute-HIVACAT, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Barcelona, Spain; (S.S.-A.); (A.L.); (C.B.)
| | - Christian Brander
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute-HIVACAT, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Barcelona, Spain; (S.S.-A.); (A.L.); (C.B.)
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitat de Vic-Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC), 08500 Vic, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Masafumi Takiguchi
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan; (H.M.); (T.A.); (M.T.)
| | - Tomáš Hanke
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (Y.S.M.); (N.J.B.); (N.M.); (F.S.); (Z.H.); (A.C.)
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan; (H.M.); (T.A.); (M.T.)
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