Cancer Vaccines: Antigen Selection Strategy

The relevance of tumor target expression levels on IgA-mediated cytotoxicity in cancer immunotherapy

Recent advances in cancer immunotherapy, particularly the success of immune checkpoint inhibitors, have reignited interest in targeted monoclonal antibodies for immunotherapy. Antibody therapies aim to minimize on-target, off-tumor toxicity by targeting antigens overexpressed on tumor cells but not on healthy cells. Despite considerable efforts, some therapeutic antibodies have been linked to dose-limiting side effects. Our hypothesis suggests that the efficacy of IgG leads to a lower target expression threshold for tumor cell killing, contributing to these side effects. Earlier, therapeutic IgG antibodies were reformatted into the IgA isotype. Unlike IgG, which primarily engages Fc gamma receptors (FcγR) to induce antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) by NK cells and antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP) by monocytes/macrophages, IgA antibodies activate neutrophils through the Fc alpha receptor I (CD89, FcαRI). In previous studies, it appeared that IgA may require a higher target expression threshold for effective killing, and we aimed to investigate this in our current study. Moreover, we investigated how blocking the myeloid checkpoint CD47/SIRPα axis affect the target expression threshold. Using a tetracycline-inducible expression system, we regulated target expression in different cell lines. Our findings from ADCC assays indicate that IgA-mediated PMN ADCC requires a higher antigen expression level than IgG-mediated PBMC ADCC. Furthermore, blocking CD47 enhanced IgA-mediated ADCC, lowering the antigen threshold. Validated in two in vivo models, our results show that IgA significantly reduces tumor growth in high-antigen-expressing tumors without affecting low-antigen-expressing healthy tissues. This suggests IgA-based immunotherapy could potentially minimize on-target, off-tumor side effects, improving treatment efficacy and patient safety.

Developing Vaccines in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: Trials and Tribulations

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma represents one of the most challenging malignancies to treat, with dismal survival rates despite advances in therapeutic modalities. Immunotherapy, particularly vaccines, has emerged as a promising strategy to harness the body's immune system in combating this aggressive cancer. This abstract reviews the trials and tribulations encountered in the development of vaccines targeting pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Key challenges include the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, the heterogeneity of tumor antigens, and a limited understanding of immune evasion mechanisms employed by pancreatic cancer cells. Various vaccine platforms, including peptide-based, dendritic cell-based, and viral vector-based vaccines, have been explored in preclinical and clinical settings. However, translating promising results from preclinical models to clinical efficacy has proven elusive. In recent years, mRNA vaccines have emerged as a promising immunotherapeutic strategy in the fight against various cancers, including pancreatic adenocarcinoma. We will discuss the potential applications, opportunities, and challenges associated with mRNA vaccines in pancreatic cancer treatment.

Novel therapeutic agents in clinical trials: emerging approaches in cancer therapy

Novel therapeutic agents in clinical trials offer a paradigm shift in the approach to battling this prevalent and destructive disease, and the area of cancer therapy is on the precipice of a trans formative revolution. Despite the importance of tried-and-true cancer treatments like surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the disease continues to evolve and adapt, making new, more potent methods necessary. The field of cancer therapy is currently witnessing the emergence of a wide range of innovative approaches. Immunotherapy, including checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T cell treatment, and cancer vaccines, utilizes the host's immune system to selectively target and eradicate malignant cells while minimizing harm to normal tissue. The development of targeted medicines like kinase inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies has allowed for more targeted and less harmful approaches to treating cancer. With the help of genomics and molecular profiling, "precision medicine" customizes therapies to each patient's unique genetic makeup to maximize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing unwanted side effects. Epigenetic therapies, metabolic interventions, radio-pharmaceuticals, and an increasing emphasis on combination therapy with synergistic effects further broaden the therapeutic landscape. Multiple-stage clinical trials are essential for determining the safety and efficacy of these novel drugs, allowing patients to gain access to novel treatments while also furthering scientific understanding. The future of cancer therapy is rife with promise, as the integration of artificial intelligence and big data has the potential to revolutionize early detection and prevention. Collaboration among researchers, and healthcare providers, and the active involvement of patients remain the bedrock of the ongoing battle against cancer. In conclusion, the dynamic and evolving landscape of cancer therapy provides hope for improved treatment outcomes, emphasizing a patient-centered, data-driven, and ethically grounded approach as we collectively strive towards a cancer-free world.

Advancements in Immunotherapy for Breast Cancer: Mechanisms, Efficacy, and Future Directions

Breast cancer is a major global health challenge characterized by its diverse biological behavior and varying treatment responses. Traditional therapies, including surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, and targeted therapy, have significantly advanced breast cancer treatment but are often limited by issues such as resistance, side effects, and variable efficacy. Immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative approach, leveraging the body's immune system to target and eliminate cancer cells. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in immunotherapy for breast cancer, detailing the mechanisms of various therapeutic strategies, including checkpoint inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, cancer vaccines, adoptive cell therapy, and oncolytic virus therapy. We evaluate the efficacy of these approaches in different stages of breast cancer, highlighting successes and challenges encountered in clinical settings. The review also addresses the current limitations of immunotherapy, such as treatment-related adverse effects, resistance mechanisms, and issues of cost and accessibility. We discuss promising future directions, including emerging targets, combination therapies, and personalized medicine approaches. By integrating recent research and clinical trial data, this review aims to elucidate the potential of immunotherapy to revolutionize breast cancer treatment, offering insights into its future role in improving patient outcomes and shaping the landscape of oncological care.

Components, Formulations, Deliveries, and Combinations of Tumor Vaccines

Tumor vaccines, an important part of immunotherapy, prevent cancer or kill existing tumor cells by activating or restoring the body's own immune system. Currently, various formulations of tumor vaccines have been developed, including cell vaccines, tumor cell membrane vaccines, tumor DNA vaccines, tumor mRNA vaccines, tumor polypeptide vaccines, virus-vectored tumor vaccines, and tumor-in-situ vaccines. There are also multiple delivery systems for tumor vaccines, such as liposomes, cell membrane vesicles, viruses, exosomes, and emulsions. In addition, to decrease the risk of tumor immune escape and immune tolerance that may exist with a single tumor vaccine, combination therapy of tumor vaccines with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, CAR-T therapy, or photoimmunotherapy is an effective strategy. Given the critical role of tumor vaccines in immunotherapy, here, we look back to the history of tumor vaccines, and we discuss the antigens, adjuvants, formulations, delivery systems, mechanisms, combination therapy, and future directions of tumor vaccines.

Neoantigens and cancer-testis antigens as promising vaccine candidates for triple-negative breast cancer: Delivery strategies and clinical trials

Immunotherapy is gaining prominence as a promising strategy for treating triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Neoantigens (neoAgs) and cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) are tumor-specific targets originating from somatic mutations and epigenetic changes in cancer cells. These antigens hold great promise for personalized cancer vaccines, as supported by preclinical and early clinical evidence in TNBC. This review delves into the potential of neoAgs and CTAs as vaccine candidates, emphasizing diverse strategies and delivery approaches. It also highlights the current status of vaccination modalities undergoing clinical trials in TNBC therapy. A comprehensive understanding of neoAgs, CTAs, vaccination strategies, and innovative delivery methods is crucial for optimizing neoAg-based immunotherapies in clinical practice.

Exosome-like Systems: From Therapies to Vaccination for Cancer Treatment and Prevention-Exploring the State of the Art

Cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world due to its increasing incidence and treatment difficulties. Although significant progress has been made in this field, innovative approaches are needed to reduce tumor incidence, progression, and spread. In particular, the development of cancer vaccines is currently ongoing as both a preventive and therapeutic strategy. This concept is not new, but few vaccines have been approved in oncology. Antigen-based vaccination emerges as a promising strategy, leveraging specific tumor antigens to activate the immune system response. However, challenges persist in finding suitable delivery systems and antigen preparation methods. Exosomes (EXs) are highly heterogeneous bilayer vesicles that carry several molecule types in the extracellular space. The peculiarity is that they may be released from different cells and may be able to induce direct or indirect stimulation of the immune system. In particular, EX-based vaccines may cause an anti-tumor immune attack or produce memory cells recognizing cancer antigens and inhibiting disease development. This review delves into EX composition, biogenesis, and immune-modulating properties, exploring their role as a tool for prevention and therapy in solid tumors. Finally, we describe future research directions to optimize vaccine efficacy and realize the full potential of EX-based cancer immunotherapy.

Modulating extracellular matrix stiffness: a strategic approach to boost cancer immunotherapy

The interplay between extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness and the tumor microenvironment is increasingly recognized as a critical factor in cancer progression and the efficacy of immunotherapy. This review comprehensively discusses the key factors regulating ECM remodeling, including the activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts and the accumulation and crosslinking of ECM proteins. Furthermore, it provides a detailed exploration of how ECM stiffness influences the behaviors of both tumor and immune cells. Significantly, the impact of ECM stiffness on the response to various immunotherapy strategies, such as immune checkpoint blockade, adoptive cell therapy, oncolytic virus therapy, and therapeutic cancer vaccines, is thoroughly examined. The review also addresses the challenges in translating research findings into clinical practice, highlighting the need for more precise biomaterials that accurately mimic the ECM and the development of novel therapeutic strategies. The insights offered aim to guide future research, with the potential to enhance the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy modalities.

Tumor-Derived Antigenic Peptides as Potential Cancer Vaccines

Peptide antigens derived from tumors have been observed to elicit protective immune responses, categorized as either tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) or tumor-specific antigens (TSAs). Subunit cancer vaccines incorporating these antigens have shown promise in inducing protective immune responses, leading to cancer prevention or eradication. Over recent years, peptide-based cancer vaccines have gained popularity as a treatment modality and are often combined with other forms of cancer therapy. Several clinical trials have explored the safety and efficacy of peptide-based cancer vaccines, with promising outcomes. Advancements in techniques such as whole-exome sequencing, next-generation sequencing, and in silico methods have facilitated the identification of antigens, making it increasingly feasible. Furthermore, the development of novel delivery methods and a deeper understanding of tumor immune evasion mechanisms have heightened the interest in these vaccines among researchers. This article provides an overview of novel insights regarding advancements in the field of peptide-based vaccines as a promising therapeutic avenue for cancer treatment. It summarizes existing computational methods for tumor neoantigen prediction, ongoing clinical trials involving peptide-based cancer vaccines, and recent studies on human vaccination experiments.

Advancing nanotechnology for neoantigen-based cancer theranostics

Neoantigens play a pivotal role in the field of tumour therapy, encompassing the stimulation of anti-tumour immune response and the enhancement of tumour targeting capability. Nonetheless, numerous factors directly influence the effectiveness of neoantigens in bolstering anti-tumour immune responses, including neoantigen quantity and specificity, uptake rates by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), residence duration within the tumour microenvironment (TME), and their ability to facilitate the maturation of APCs for immune response activation. Nanotechnology assumes a significant role in several aspects, including facilitating neoantigen release, promoting neoantigen delivery to antigen-presenting cells, augmenting neoantigen uptake by dendritic cells, shielding neoantigens from protease degradation, and optimizing interactions between neoantigens and the immune system. Consequently, the development of nanotechnology synergistically enhances the efficacy of neoantigens in cancer theranostics. In this review, we provide an overview of neoantigen sources, the mechanisms of neoantigen-induced immune responses, and the evolution of precision neoantigen-based nanomedicine. This encompasses various therapeutic modalities, such as neoantigen-based immunotherapy, phototherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, chemodynamic therapy, and other strategies tailored to augment precision in cancer therapeutics. We also discuss the current challenges and prospects in the application of neoantigen-based precision nanomedicine, aiming to expedite its clinical translation.

Tumor neoantigens and tumor immunotherapies

As a high-risk group of patients with cancer, the elderly exhibit limited efficacy with traditional treatments. Immunotherapy emerges as a promising adjunctive therapeutic approach that holds potential in addressing the needs of geriatric patients with cancer. Neoantigens, a unique class of tumor-specific antigens generated by non-synonymous mutations, are garnering increasing attention as targets for immunotherapy in clinical applications. Newly developed technologies, such as second-generation gene sequencing and mass spectrometry, have provided powerful technical support for the identification and prediction of neoantigens. At present, neoantigen-based immunotherapy has been extensively applied in clinical trials and has demonstrated both safety and efficacy, marking the beginning of a new era for cancer immunotherapy. This article reviews the conception, classification, inducers, and screening process of tumor neoantigens, as well as the application prospects and combination therapy strategies of neoantigen-based cancer immunotherapy.

Knockout cancer by nano-delivered immunotherapy using perfusion-aided scaffold-based tumor-on-a-chip

Cancer is a multifactorial disease produced by mutations in the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and resistance to cell death. Cancer progresses due to the escape of altered cells from immune monitoring, which is facilitated by the tumor's mutual interaction with its microenvironment. Understanding the mechanisms involved in immune surveillance evasion and the significance of the tumor microenvironment might thus aid in developing improved therapies. Although in vivo models are commonly utilized, they could be better for time, cost, and ethical concerns. As a result, it is critical to replicate an in vivo model and recreate the cellular and tissue-level functionalities. A 3D cell culture, which gives a 3D architecture similar to that found in vivo, is an appropriate model. Furthermore, numerous cell types can be cocultured, establishing cellular interactions between TME and tumor cells. Moreover, microfluidics perfusion can provide precision flow rates, thus simulating tissue/organ function. Immunotherapy can be used with the perfused 3D cell culture technique to help develop successful therapeutics. Immunotherapy employing nano delivery can target the spot and silence the responsible genes, ensuring treatment effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This study focuses on the importance of 3D cell culture in understanding the pathophysiology of 3D tumors and TME, the function of TME in drug resistance, tumor progression, and the development of advanced anticancer therapies for high-throughput drug screening.

Characterization of antigen presentation capability for neoantigen-based products using targeted LC-MS/MS method

The generation of an immune response in neoantigen-based products relies on antigen presentation, which is closely analyzed by bioassays for T-cell functions such as tetramer or cytokine release. Mass spectrometry (MS) has the potential to directly assess the antigen-presenting capability of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), offering advantages such as speed, multi-target analysis, robustness, and ease of transferability. However, it has not been used for quality control of these products due to challenges in sensitivity, including the number of cells and peptide diversity. In this study, we describe the development and validation of an improved targeted LC-MS/MS method with high sensitivity for characterizing antigen presentation, which could be applied in the quality control of neoantigen-based products. The parameters for the extraction were carefully optimized by different short peptides. Highly sensitive targeted triple quadrupole mass spectrometry combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) was employed using a selective ion monitoring mode (Multiple Reaction Monitoring, MRM). Besides, we successfully implemented robust quality control peptides to ensure the reliability and consistency of this method, which proved invaluable for different APCs. With reference to the guidelines from ICH Q2 (R2), M10, as well as considering the specific attributes of the product itself, we validated the method for selectivity, specificity, sensitivity, limit of detection (LOD), recovery rate, matrix effect, repeatability, and application in dendritic cells (DCs) associated with neoantigen-based products. The validation process yields satisfactory results. Combining this approach with T cell assays will comprehensively assess cell product quality attributes from physicochemical and biological perspectives.

Cancer Vaccines Designed Based the Nanoparticle and Tumor Cells for the Treatment of Tumors: A Perspective

Cancer vaccines based on tumor cell components have shown promising results in animal and clinical studies. The vaccine system contains abundant tumor antigen components, which can activate the immune system by antigens. However, their efficacy has been limited by the inability of antigens delivery, which are the core components of vaccines, further fail to be presented and activation of effective cells. Nanotechnology offers a novel platform to enhance the immunogenicity of tumor-associated antigens and deliver them to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) more efficiently. In addition, nanotreatment of tumor cells derivate active ingredients could also help improve the effectiveness of cancer vaccines. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the development of cancer vaccines by the combination of nanotechnology and tumor-based ingredients, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, virus-like particles and tumor cells membrane, tumor lysate, and specific tumor antigens. These nanovaccines have been designed to increase antigen uptake, prolong antigen presentation, and modulate immune responses through codelivery of immunostimulatory agents. We also further discuss challenges and opportunities in the clinical translation of these nanovaccines.

Generation of the therapeutic monoclonal antibody NEO-201, derived from a cancer vaccine, which targets human malignancies and immune suppressor cells

INTRODUCTION

Cancer vaccines stimulate the activation of specific humoral and cellular adaptive responses against cancer cells.Antibodies generated post vaccination can be isolated and further selected to develop highly specific and potent monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against tumor-associated antigens.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes different types of cancer vaccines, the process of the generation of the mAb NEO-201 from the Hollinshead cancer vaccine platform, the characterization of the antigen recognized by NEO-201, the ability of NEO-201 to bind and mediate the killing of cancer cells and immunosuppressive cells (gMDSCs and Tregs) through ADCC and CDC, NEO-201 preclinical and clinical toxicity and efficacy.

EXPERT OPINION

To overcome the problem of poor clinical efficacy of cancer vaccines, due to the activity of immunosuppressive cells, cancer vaccines could be combined with other immunotherapeutics able to deplete immunosuppressive cells. Results from clinical trials, employing NEO-201 alone or in combination with pembrolizumab, showed that durable stabilization of disease after treatment was due to the ability of NEO-201 to target and reduce the percentage of circulating Tregs and gMDSCs.These findings provide compelling support to combine NEO-201 with cancer vaccines to reintegrate their ability to elicit a robust and durable immune adaptive response against cancer.

Unveiling the Immune Microenvironment's Role in Breast Cancer: A Glimpse into Promising Frontiers

Breast cancer (BC), one of the most widespread and devastating diseases affecting women worldwide, presents a significant public health challenge. This review explores the emerging frontiers of research focused on deciphering the intricate interplay between BC cells and the immune microenvironment. Understanding the role of the immune system in BC is critical as it holds promise for novel therapeutic approaches and precision medicine strategies. This review delves into the current literature regarding the immune microenvironment's contribution to BC initiation, progression, and metastasis. It examines the complex mechanisms by which BC cells interact with various immune cell populations, including tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Furthermore, this review highlights the impact of immune-related factors, such as cytokines and immune checkpoint molecules. Additionally, this comprehensive analysis sheds light on the potential biomarkers associated with the immune response in BC, enabling early diagnosis and prognostic assessment. The therapeutic implications of targeting the immune microenvironment are also explored, encompassing immunotherapeutic strategies and combination therapies to enhance treatment efficacy. The significance of this review lies in its potential to pave the way for novel therapeutic interventions, providing clinicians and researchers with essential knowledge to design targeted and personalized treatment regimens for BC patients.

The screening, identification, design and clinical application of tumor-specific neoantigens for TCR-T cells

Recent advances in neoantigen research have accelerated the development of tumor immunotherapies, including adoptive cell therapies (ACTs), cancer vaccines and antibody-based therapies, particularly for solid tumors. With the development of next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics technology, the rapid identification and prediction of tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) has become possible. Compared with tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), highly immunogenic TSAs provide new targets for personalized tumor immunotherapy and can be used as prospective indicators for predicting tumor patient survival, prognosis, and immune checkpoint blockade response. Here, the identification and characterization of neoantigens and the clinical application of neoantigen-based TCR-T immunotherapy strategies are summarized, and the current status, inherent challenges, and clinical translational potential of these strategies are discussed.

Lipid nanoparticle-based mRNA delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, which harnesses the power of the immune system, has shown immense promise in the fight against malignancies. Messenger RNA (mRNA) stands as a versatile instrument in this context, with its capacity to encode tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), immune cell receptors, cytokines, and antibodies. Nevertheless, the inherent structural instability of mRNA requires the development of effective delivery systems. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as significant candidates for mRNA delivery in cancer immunotherapy, providing both protection to the mRNA and enhanced intracellular delivery efficiency. In this review, we offer a comprehensive summary of the recent advancements in LNP-based mRNA delivery systems, with a focus on strategies for optimizing the design and delivery of mRNA-encoded therapeutics in cancer treatment. Furthermore, we delve into the challenges encountered in this field and contemplate future perspectives, aiming to improve the safety and efficacy of LNP-based mRNA cancer immunotherapies.

Vaccination and Microbiota Manipulation Approaches for Colon Cancer Prevention in Rodent Models

Colorectal cancer represents the third most common cancer type worldwide and is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality in the United States and Western countries. Rodent models have been invaluable to study the etiology of colorectal cancer and to test novel chemoprevention avenues. In the past, the laboratory mouse has become one of the best preclinical models for these studies due to the availability of genetic information for commonly used mouse strains with well-established and precise gene targeting and transgenic techniques. Well-established chemical mutagenesis technologies are also being used to develop mouse and rat models of colorectal cancer for prevention and treatment studies. In addition, xenotransplantation of cancer cell lines and patient-derived xenografts has been useful for preclinical prevention studies and drug development. This review focuses on the recent use of rodent models to evaluate the utility of novel strategies in the prevention of colon cancers including immune prevention approaches and the manipulation of the intestinal microbiota.

The use of RNA-based treatments in the field of cancer immunotherapy

Over the past several decades, mRNA vaccines have evolved from a theoretical concept to a clinical reality. These vaccines offer several advantages over traditional vaccine techniques, including their high potency, rapid development, low-cost manufacturing, and safe administration. However, until recently, concerns over the instability and inefficient distribution of mRNA in vivo have limited their utility. Fortunately, recent technological advancements have mostly resolved these concerns, resulting in the development of numerous mRNA vaccination platforms for infectious diseases and various types of cancer. These platforms have shown promising outcomes in both animal models and humans. This study highlights the potential of mRNA vaccines as a promising alternative approach to conventional vaccine techniques and cancer treatment. This review article aims to provide a thorough and detailed examination of mRNA vaccines, including their mechanisms of action and potential applications in cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, the article will analyze the current state of mRNA vaccine technology and highlight future directions for the development and implementation of this promising vaccine platform as a mainstream therapeutic option. The review will also discuss potential challenges and limitations of mRNA vaccines, such as their stability and in vivo distribution, and suggest ways to overcome these issues. By providing a comprehensive overview and critical analysis of mRNA vaccines, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of this innovative approach to cancer treatment.

A Peptide Vaccine Design Targeting KIT Mutations in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a leading blood cancer subtype that can be caused by 27 gene mutations. Previous studies have explored potential vaccine and drug treatments against AML, but many were proven immunologically insignificant. Here, we targeted this issue and applied various clinical filters to improve immune response. KIT is an oncogenic gene that can cause AML when mutated and is predicted to be a promising vaccine target because of its immunogenic responses when activated. We designed a multi-epitope vaccine targeting mutations in the KIT oncogene using CD8+ and CD4+ epitopes. We selected the most viable vaccine epitopes based on thresholds for percentile rank, immunogenicity, antigenicity, half-life, toxicity, IFNγ release, allergenicity, and stability. The efficacy of data was observed through world and regional population coverage of our vaccine design. Then, we obtained epitopes for optimized population coverage from PCOptim-CD, a modified version of our original Java-based program code PCOptim. Using 24 mutations on the KIT gene, 12 CD8+ epitopes and 21 CD4+ epitopes were obtained. The CD8+ dataset had a 98.55% world population coverage, while the CD4+ dataset had a 65.14% world population coverage. There were five CD4+ epitopes that overlapped with the top CD8+ epitopes. Strong binding to murine MHC molecules was found in four CD8+ and six CD4+ epitopes, demonstrating the feasibility of our results in preclinical murine vaccine trials. We then created three-dimensional (3D) models to visualize epitope-MHC complexes and TCR interactions. The final candidate is a non-toxic and non-allergenic multi-epitope vaccine against KIT mutations that cause AML. Further research would involve murine trials of the vaccine candidates on tumor cells causing AML.

Development of novel self-assembled vaccines based on tumour-specific antigenic peptide and TLR2 agonist for effective breast cancer immunotherapy via activating CD8+ T cells and enhancing their function

Vaccines based on tumour-specific antigens are a promising approach for immunotherapy. However, the clinical efficacy of tumour-specific antigens is still challenging. Twelve conjugates with self-assembly properties were designed and synthesized using MAGE-A1 peptide and TLR2 agonist, combined with different covalent bonds. All the developed conjugates formed spherical nanoparticles with a diameter of approximately 150 nm, and enhanced the efficacy of the peptide vaccines with the better targeting of lymph nodes. All the conjugates could well bind to serum albumin and improve the plasma stability of the individual antigenic peptides. In particular, conjugate 6 (N-Ac PamCS-M-6) had a more significant ability to promote dendritic cell maturation, CD8⁺ T cell activation, and subsequent killing of tumour cells, with an in vivo tumour inhibition rate of 70 ± 2.9%. The interaction between specific response and the different conjugation modes was further explored, thereby providing a fundamental basis for novel immune anti-tumour molecular platforms.

A Therapeutic Vaccine Targeting Rat BORIS (CTCFL) for the Treatment of Rat Breast Cancer Tumors

Cancer testis antigens are ideal for tumor immunotherapy due to their testis-restricted expression. We previously showed that an immunotherapeutic vaccine targeting the germ cell-specific transcription factor BORIS (CTCFL) was highly effective in treating aggressive breast cancer in the 4T1 mouse model. Here, we further tested the therapeutic efficacy of BORIS in a rat 13762 breast cancer model. We generated a recombinant VEE-VRP (Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis-derived replicon particle) vector-expressing modified rat BORIS lacking a DNA-binding domain (VRP-mBORIS). Rats were inoculated with the 13762 cells, immunized with VRP-mBORIS 48 h later, and then, subsequently, boosted at 10-day intervals. The Kaplan-Meier method was used for survival analysis. Cured rats were re-challenged with the same 13762 cells. We demonstrated that BORIS was expressed in a small population of the 13762 cells, called cancer stem cells. Treatment of rats with VRP-BORIS suppressed tumor growth leading to its complete disappearance in up to 50% of the rats and significantly improved their survival. This improvement was associated with the induction of BORIS-specific cellular immune responses measured by T-helper cell proliferation and INFγ secretion. The re-challenging of cured rats with the same 13762 cells indicated that the immune response prevented tumor growth. Thus, a therapeutic vaccine against rat BORIS showed high efficacy in treating the rat 13762 carcinoma. These data suggest that targeting BORIS can lead to the elimination of mammary tumors and cure animals even though BORIS expression is detected only in cancer stem cells.

Vaccine research and development capacity in Central and West Asia: A path toward sustainable vaccine R&D programs

The ability to support a comprehensive vaccine research and development (R&D) portfolio from a health security perspective has taken on enhanced significance over the past 3 years whereby countries that had existing vaccine R&D infrastructure (G7, Russia and China) have been at the forefront of global efforts to combat COVID-19. Few countries outside of these key players have the infrastructure necessary to develop national vaccine programs, though this is beginning to change with investment across many low- and middle-income countries. These same opportunities exist for countries in Central and West Asia, and in this perspective, we highlight the existing infrastructure and expertise across seven countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan) and propose opportunities for enhanced collaboration along with a bold proposal for establishing a new-build, regional vaccine translational research institute to facilitate the development of a robust, regional vaccine R&D environment to combat existing and future health challenges.

Recent Advances in Cancer Vaccines: Challenges, Achievements, and Futuristic Prospects

Cancer is a chronic disease, and it can be lethal due to limited therapeutic options. The conventional treatment options for cancer have numerous challenges, such as a low blood circulation time as well as poor solubility of anticancer drugs. Therapeutic cancer vaccines emerged to try to improve anticancer drugs' efficiency and to deliver them to the target site. Cancer vaccines are considered a viable therapeutic technique for most solid tumors. Vaccines boost antitumor immunity by delivering tumor antigens, nucleic acids, entire cells, and peptides. Cancer vaccines are designed to induce long-term antitumor memory, causing tumor regression, eradicate minimal residual illness, and prevent non-specific or unpleasant effects. These vaccines can assist in the elimination of cancer cells from various organs or organ systems in the body, with minimal risk of tumor recurrence or metastasis. Vaccines and antigens for anticancer therapy are discussed in this review, including current vaccine adjuvants and mechanisms of action for various types of vaccines, such as DNA- or mRNA-based cancer vaccines. Potential applications of these vaccines focusing on their clinical use for better therapeutic efficacy are also discussed along with the latest research available in this field.

IL-7: A promising adjuvant ensuring effective T cell responses and memory in combination with cancer vaccines?

Cancer vaccines exhibit specificity, effectiveness, and safety as an alternative immunotherapeutic strategy to struggle against malignant diseases, especially with the rapid development of mRNA cancer vaccines in recent years. However, how to maintain long-term immune memory after vaccination, especially T cells memory, to fulfill lasting surveillance against cancers, is still a challenging issue for researchers all over the world. IL-7 is critical for the development, maintenance, and proliferation of T lymphocytes, highlighting its potential role as an adjuvant in the development of cancer vaccines. Here, we summarized the IL-7/IL-7 receptor signaling in the development of T lymphocytes, the biological function of IL-7 in the maintenance and survival of T lymphocytes, the performance of IL-7 in pre-clinical and clinical trials of cancer vaccines, and the rationale to apply IL-7 as an adjuvant in cancer vaccine-based therapeutic strategy.

Immunotherapeutic Strategies for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC): Current Perspectives and Future Prospects

Neoantigens are abnormal proteins produced by genetic mutations in somatic cells. Because tumour neoantigens are expressed only in tumour cells and have immunogenicity, they may represent specific targets for precision immunotherapy. With the reduction in sequencing cost, continuous advances in artificial intelligence technology and an increased understanding of tumour immunity, neoantigen vaccines and adoptive cell therapy (ACT) targeting neoantigens have become research hotspots. Approximately 900,000 patients worldwide are diagnosed with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) each year. Due to its high mutagenicity and abundant lymphocyte infiltration, HNSCC naturally generates a variety of potential new antigen targets that may be used for HNSCC immunotherapies. Currently, the main immunotherapy for HNSCC is use of immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs). Neoantigen vaccines and adoptive cell therapy targeting neoantigens are extensions of immunotherapy for HNSCC, and a large number of early clinical trials are underway in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (R/M HNSCC). In this paper, we review recent neoantigen vaccine trials related to the treatment of HNSCC, introduce adoptive cell therapy targeting neoantigens, and propose a potential treatment for HNSCC. The clinical application of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy and its combination with neoantigen vaccines in the treatment of HNSCC are summarized, and the prospect of using neoantigen to treat HNSCC is discussed and proposed.

Immunogenic ferroptosis and where to find it?

Ferroptosis is a recently discovered form of regulated cell death that is morphologically, genetically, and biochemically distinct from apoptosis and necroptosis, and its potential use in anticancer therapy is emerging. The strong immunogenicity of (early) ferroptotic cancer cells broadens the current concept of immunogenic cell death and opens up new possibilities for cancer treatment. In particular, induction of immunogenic ferroptosis could be beneficial for patients with cancers resistant to apoptosis and necroptosis. However, ferroptotic cancer cells may be a rich source of oxidized lipids, which contribute to decreased phagocytosis and antigen cross-presentation by dendritic cells and thus may favor tumor evasion. This could explain the non-immunogenicity of late ferroptotic cells. Besides the presence of lactate in the tumor microenvironment, acidification and hypoxia are essential factors promoting ferroptosis resistance and affecting its immunogenicity. Here, we critically discuss the crucial mediators controlling the immunogenicity of ferroptosis that modulate the induction of antitumor immunity. We emphasize that it will be necessary to also identify the tolerogenic (ie, immunosuppressive) nature of ferroptosis, which can lead to tumor evasion.

The Importance of Cellular Metabolic Pathways in Pathogenesis and Selective Treatments of Hematological Malignancies

Despite recent advancements in the treatment of hematologic malignancies and the emergence of newer and more sophisticated therapeutic approaches such as immunotherapy, long-term overall survival remains unsatisfactory. Metabolic alteration, as an important hallmark of cancer cells, not only contributes to the malignant transformation of cells, but also promotes tumor progression and metastasis. As an immune-escape mechanism, the metabolic adaptation of the bone marrow microenvironment and leukemic cells is a major player in the suppression of anti-leukemia immune responses. Therefore, metabolic rewiring in leukemia would provide promising opportunities for newer therapeutic interventions. Several therapeutic agents which affect essential bioenergetic pathways in cancer cells including glycolysis, β-oxidation of fatty acids and Krebs cycle, or anabolic pathways such as lipid biosynthesis and pentose phosphate pathway, are being tested in various types of cancers. So far, numerous preclinical or clinical trial studies using such metabolic agents alone or in combination with other remedies such as immunotherapy are in progress and have demonstrated promising outcomes. In this review, we aim to argue the importance of metabolic alterations and bioenergetic pathways in different types of leukemia and their vital roles in disease development. Designing treatments based on targeting leukemic cells vulnerabilities, particularly in nonresponsive leukemia patients, should be warranted.

Vaccines for Non-Viral Cancer Prevention

Cancer vaccines are a type of immune therapy that seeks to modulate the host’s immune system to induce durable and protective immune responses against cancer-related antigens. The little clinical success of therapeutic cancer vaccines is generally attributed to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment at late-stage diseases. The administration of cancer-preventive vaccination at early stages, such as pre-malignant lesions or even in healthy individuals at high cancer risk could increase clinical efficacy by potentiating immune surveillance and pre-existing specific immune responses, thus eliminating de novo appearing lesions or maintaining equilibrium. Indeed, research focus has begun to shift to these approaches and some of them are yielding encouraging outcomes.

mRNA-Based Cancer Vaccines: A Therapeutic Strategy for the Treatment of Melanoma Patients

Malignant melanoma is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer and the leading cause of death from skin tumors. Given the increased incidence of melanoma diagnoses in recent years, it is essential to develop effective treatments to control this disease. In this regard, the use of cancer vaccines to enhance cell-mediated immunity is considered to be one of the most modern immunotherapy options for cancer treatment. The most recent cancer vaccine options are mRNA vaccines, with a focus on their usage as modern treatments. Advantages of mRNA cancer vaccines include their rapid production and low manufacturing costs. mRNA-based vaccines are also able to induce both humoral and cellular immune responses. In addition to the many advantages of mRNA vaccines for the treatment of cancer, their use is associated with a number of challenges. For this reason, before mRNA vaccines can be used for the treatment of cancer, comprehensive information about them is required and a large number of trials need to be conducted. Here, we reviewed the general features of mRNA vaccines, including their basis, stabilization, and delivery methods. We also covered clinical trials involving the use of mRNA vaccines in melanoma cancer and the challenges involved with this type of treatment. This review also emphasized the combination of treatment with mRNA vaccines with the use of immune-checkpoint blockers to enhance cell-mediated immunity.