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The EPH/Ephrin System in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC): From Pathogenesis to Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24033015. [PMID: 36769332 PMCID: PMC9917762 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24033015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a major concern for health care systems worldwide, since its mortality remains unaltered despite the surge in cutting-edge science. The EPH/ephrin signaling system was first investigated in the 1980s. EPH/ephrins have been shown to exert bidirectional signaling and cell-to-cell communication, influencing cellular morphology, adhesion, migration and invasion. Recent studies have highlighted the critical role of the EPH/ephrin system in various physiologic processes, including cellular proliferation, survival, synaptic plasticity and angiogenesis. Thus, it has become evident that the EPH/ephrin signaling system may have compelling effects on cell homeostasis that contribute to carcinogenesis. In particular, the EPH/ephrins have an impact on pancreatic morphogenesis and development, whereas several EPHs and ephrins are altered in PDAC. Several clinical and preclinical studies have attempted to elucidate the effects of the EPH/ephrin pathway, with multilayered effects on PDAC development. These studies have highlighted its highly promising role in the diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic management of PDAC. The aim of this review is to explore the obscure aspects of the EPH/ephrin system concerning the development, physiology and homeostasis of the pancreas.
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Liu R, Li X, Xiao W, Lam KS. Tumor-targeting peptides from combinatorial libraries. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 110-111:13-37. [PMID: 27210583 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is one of the major and leading causes of death worldwide. Two of the greatest challenges in fighting cancer are early detection and effective treatments with no or minimum side effects. Widespread use of targeted therapies and molecular imaging in clinics requires high affinity, tumor-specific agents as effective targeting vehicles to deliver therapeutics and imaging probes to the primary or metastatic tumor sites. Combinatorial libraries such as phage-display and one-bead one-compound (OBOC) peptide libraries are powerful approaches in discovering tumor-targeting peptides. This review gives an overview of different combinatorial library technologies that have been used for the discovery of tumor-targeting peptides. Examples of tumor-targeting peptides identified from each combinatorial library method will be discussed. Published tumor-targeting peptide ligands and their applications will also be summarized by the combinatorial library methods and their corresponding binding receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiwu Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Xiaocen Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Wenwu Xiao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Kit S Lam
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; Division of Hematology & Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
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Riedl SJ, Pasquale EB. Targeting the Eph System with Peptides and Peptide Conjugates. Curr Drug Targets 2015; 16:1031-47. [PMID: 26212263 PMCID: PMC4861043 DOI: 10.2174/1389450116666150727115934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Eph receptor tyrosine kinases and ephrin ligands constitute an important cell communication system that controls development, tissue homeostasis and many pathological processes. Various Eph receptors/ephrins are present in essentially all cell types and their expression is often dysregulated by injury and disease. Thus, the 14 Eph receptors are attracting increasing attention as a major class of potential drug targets. In particular, agents that bind to the extracellular ephrin-binding pocket of these receptors show promise for medical applications. This pocket comprises a broad and shallow groove surrounded by several flexible loops, which makes peptides particularly suitable to target it with high affinity and selectivity. Accordingly, a number of peptides that bind to Eph receptors with micromolar affinity have been identified using phage display and other approaches. These peptides are generally antagonists that inhibit ephrin binding and Eph receptor/ ephrin signaling, but some are agonists mimicking ephrin-induced Eph receptor activation. Importantly, some of the peptides are exquisitely selective for single Eph receptors. Most identified peptides are linear, but recently the considerable advantages of cyclic scaffolds have been recognized, particularly in light of potential optimization towards drug leads. To date, peptide improvements have yielded derivatives with low nanomolar Eph receptor binding affinity, high resistance to plasma proteases and/or long in vivo half-life, exemplifying the merits of peptides for Eph receptor targeting. Besides their modulation of Eph receptor/ephrin function, peptides can also serve to deliver conjugated imaging and therapeutic agents or various types of nanoparticles to tumors and other diseased tissues presenting target Eph receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena B Pasquale
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 N. Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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iRGD tumor-penetrating peptide-modified oncolytic adenovirus shows enhanced tumor transduction, intratumoral dissemination and antitumor efficacy. Gene Ther 2014; 21:767-74. [DOI: 10.1038/gt.2014.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Behr M, Kaufmann JK, Ketzer P, Engelhardt S, Mück-Häusl M, Okun PM, Petersen G, Neipel F, Hassel JC, Ehrhardt A, Enk AH, Nettelbeck DM. Adenoviruses using the cancer marker EphA2 as a receptor in vitro and in vivo by genetic ligand insertion into different capsid scaffolds. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95723. [PMID: 24760010 PMCID: PMC3997477 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenoviral gene therapy and oncolysis would critically benefit from targeted cell entry by genetically modified capsids. This requires both the ablation of native adenovirus tropism and the identification of ligands that remain functional in virus context. Here, we establish cell type-specific entry of HAdV-5-based vectors by genetic ligand insertion into a chimeric fiber with shaft and knob domains of the short HAdV-41 fiber (Ad5T/41sSK). This fiber format was reported to ablate transduction in vitro and biodistribution to the liver in vivo. We show that the YSA peptide, binding to the pan-cancer marker EphA2, can be inserted into three positions of the chimeric fiber, resulting in strong transduction of EphA2-positive but not EphA2-negative cells of human melanoma biopsies and of tumor xenografts after intratumoral injection. Transduction was blocked by soluble YSA peptide and restored for EphA2-negative cells after recombinant EphA2 expression. The YSA peptide could also be inserted into three positions of a CAR binding-ablated HAdV-5 fiber enabling specific transduction; however, the Ad5T/41sSK format was superior in vivo. In conclusion, we establish an adenovirus capsid facilitating functional insertion of targeting peptides and a novel adenovirus using the tumor marker EphA2 as receptor with high potential for cancer gene therapy and viral oncolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Behr
- Oncolytic Adenovirus Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johanna K. Kaufmann
- Oncolytic Adenovirus Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Patrick Ketzer
- Oncolytic Adenovirus Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sarah Engelhardt
- Oncolytic Adenovirus Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martin Mück-Häusl
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institute, Department of Virology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Pamela M. Okun
- Department of General Pediatrics, Division of Inherited Metabolic Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Petersen
- COS, CellNetworks Deep Sequencing Core Facility, University Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Frank Neipel
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, Erlangen University Hospital, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jessica C. Hassel
- Department of Dermatology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anja Ehrhardt
- Max von Pettenkofer-Institute, Department of Virology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Virology and Microbiology, Center for Biomedical Education and Research, Department of Human Medicine, Faculty of Health, University Witten/Herdecke, Witten, Germany
| | - Alexander H. Enk
- Department of Dermatology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dirk M. Nettelbeck
- Oncolytic Adenovirus Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany Powell Gray
- Department of Internal Medicine and The Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-8807, United States
| | - Kathlynn C. Brown
- Department of Internal Medicine and The Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-8807, United States
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Posthumadeboer J, Piersma SR, Pham TV, van Egmond PW, Knol JC, Cleton-Jansen AM, van Geer MA, van Beusechem VW, Kaspers GJL, van Royen BJ, Jiménez CR, Helder MN. Surface proteomic analysis of osteosarcoma identifies EPHA2 as receptor for targeted drug delivery. Br J Cancer 2013; 109:2142-54. [PMID: 24064975 PMCID: PMC3798973 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2013.578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common bone tumour in children and adolescents. Despite aggressive therapy regimens, treatment outcomes are unsatisfactory. Targeted delivery of drugs can provide higher effective doses at the site of the tumour, ultimately improving the efficacy of existing therapy. Identification of suitable receptors for drug targeting is an essential step in the design of targeted therapy for OS. METHODS We conducted a comparative analysis of the surface proteome of human OS cells and osteoblasts using cell surface biotinylation combined with nano-liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry-based proteomics to identify surface proteins specifically upregulated on OS cells. This approach generated an extensive data set from which we selected a candidate to study for its suitability as receptor for targeted treatment delivery to OS. First, surface expression of the ephrin type-A receptor 2 (EPHA2) receptor was confirmed using FACS analysis. Ephrin type-A receptor 2 expression in human tumour tissue was tested using immunohistochemistry. Receptor targeting and internalisation studies were conducted to assess intracellular uptake of targeted modalities via EPHA2. Finally, tissue micro arrays containing cores of human OS tissue were stained using immunohistochemistry and EPHA2 staining was correlated to clinical outcome measures. RESULTS Using mass spectrometry, a total of 2841 proteins were identified of which 156 were surface proteins significantly upregulated on OS cells compared with human primary osteoblasts. Ephrin type-A receptor 2 was highly upregulated and the most abundant surface protein on OS cells. In addition, EPHA2 was expressed in a vast majority of human OS samples. Ephrin type-A receptor 2 effectively mediates internalisation of targeted adenoviral vectors into OS cells. Patients with EPHA2-positive tumours showed a trend toward inferior overall survival. CONCLUSION The results presented here suggest that the EPHA2 receptor can be considered an attractive candidate receptor for targeted delivery of therapeutics to OS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Posthumadeboer
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, VU University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Zozulya SA, Udovichenko IP. [Eph family receptors as therapeutic targets]. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2012; 38:267-79. [PMID: 22997698 DOI: 10.1134/s106816201203017x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Anti-angiogenic therapy is currently a commonly accepted and rapidly developing approach in oncology and other pathologies linked to aberrant neovascularization. Discovery and validation of additional molecular targets in angiogenesis is needed due to the limitations of the existing clinical therapeutics inhibiting activity of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors. A brief review of normal and pathological biological functions of the Eph family of receptor tyrosine kinases and their ephrin ligands is presented, and the approaches to developing therapeutics with anti- and pro-angiogenic and anti-tumor activity based on selective molecular modulation of Eph-ephrin signaling pairs are discussed. Functional roles of Eph-kinases and ephrins in such mechanisms of cancerogenesis as cell proliferation and invasion are also addressed.
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Pan Y, Du X, Zhao F, Xu B. Magnetic nanoparticles for the manipulation of proteins and cells. Chem Soc Rev 2012; 41:2912-42. [PMID: 22318454 DOI: 10.1039/c2cs15315g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In the rapidly developing areas of nanobiotechnology, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are one type of the most well-established nanomaterials because of their biocompatibility and the potential applications as alternative contrast enhancing agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). While the development of MNPs as alternative contrast agents for MRI application has moved quickly to testing in animal models and clinical trials, other applications of biofunctional MNPs have been explored extensively at the stage of qualitative or conceptual demonstration. In this critical review, we summarize the development of two straightforward applications of biofunctional MNPs--manipulating proteins and manipulating cells--in the last five years or so and hope to provide a relatively comprehensive assessment that may help the future developments. Specifically, we start with the examination of the strategy for the surface functionalization of MNPs because the applications of MNPs essentially depend on the molecular interactions between the functional molecules on the MNPs and the intended biological targets. Then, we discuss the use of MNPs for manipulating proteins since protein interactions are critical for biological functions. Afterwards, we evaluate the development of the use of MNPs to manipulate cells because the response of MNPs to a magnetic field offers a unique way to modulate cellular behavior in a non-contact or "remote" mode (i.e. the magnet exerts force on the cells without direct contact). Finally, we provide a perspective on the future directions and challenges in the development of MNPs for these two applications. By reviewing the examples of the design and applications of biofunctional MNPs, we hope that this article will provide a reference point for the future development of MNPs that address the present challenges and lead to new opportunities in nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology (137 references).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Pan
- Department of Chemistry, Brandeis University, 415 South St, Waltham, MA 02454, USA
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Tropism-modification strategies for targeted gene delivery using adenoviral vectors. Viruses 2010; 2:2290-2355. [PMID: 21994621 PMCID: PMC3185574 DOI: 10.3390/v2102290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Achieving high efficiency, targeted gene delivery with adenoviral vectors is a long-standing goal in the field of clinical gene therapy. To achieve this, platform vectors must combine efficient retargeting strategies with detargeting modifications to ablate native receptor binding (i.e. CAR/integrins/heparan sulfate proteoglycans) and “bridging” interactions. “Bridging” interactions refer to coagulation factor binding, namely coagulation factor X (FX), which bridges hepatocyte transduction in vivo through engagement with surface expressed heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). These interactions can contribute to the off-target sequestration of Ad5 in the liver and its characteristic dose-limiting hepatotoxicity, thereby significantly limiting the in vivo targeting efficiency and clinical potential of Ad5-based therapeutics. To date, various approaches to retargeting adenoviruses (Ad) have been described. These include genetic modification strategies to incorporate peptide ligands (within fiber knob domain, fiber shaft, penton base, pIX or hexon), pseudotyping of capsid proteins to include whole fiber substitutions or fiber knob chimeras, pseudotyping with non-human Ad species or with capsid proteins derived from other viral families, hexon hypervariable region (HVR) substitutions and adapter-based conjugation/crosslinking of scFv, growth factors or monoclonal antibodies directed against surface-expressed target antigens. In order to maximize retargeting, strategies which permit detargeting from undesirable interactions between the Ad capsid and components of the circulatory system (e.g. coagulation factors, erythrocytes, pre-existing neutralizing antibodies), can be employed simultaneously. Detargeting can be achieved by genetic ablation of native receptor-binding determinants, ablation of “bridging interactions” such as those which occur between the hexon of Ad5 and coagulation factor X (FX), or alternatively, through the use of polymer-coated “stealth” vectors which avoid these interactions. Simultaneous retargeting and detargeting can be achieved by combining multiple genetic and/or chemical modifications.
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Mitra S, Duggineni S, Koolpe M, Zhu X, Huang Z, Pasquale EB. Structure-activity relationship analysis of peptides targeting the EphA2 receptor. Biochemistry 2010; 49:6687-95. [PMID: 20677833 DOI: 10.1021/bi1006223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The EphA2 receptor tyrosine kinase has emerged as a promising new therapeutic target in cancer because of its high level of expression in tumors. EphA2-specific antibodies have been used to deliver drugs and toxins to tumor cells, leading to inhibition of tumor growth and metastatic dissemination. We previously identified two related peptides, YSA and SWL, that selectively bind to the ligand-binding domain of EphA2 but not other Eph receptors and could therefore be useful as selective targeting agents. Here we characterize the two peptides and a series of derivatives. On the basis of systematic amino acid replacements, only five YSA residues appear to be critical for high-affinity receptor binding. Furthermore, a peptide comprising only the first five residues of YSA retains selectivity for EphA2. Similar to ephrin-A1, the physiological ligand for EphA2, both YSA and SWL activate EphA2 and inhibit downstream oncogenic signaling pathways in PC3 cancer cells. The two peptides and derivatives are quite stable in conditioned cell culture medium and show promise for delivering drugs and imaging agents to EphA2-expressing tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayantan Mitra
- Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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Increasing the efficacy of oncolytic adenovirus vectors. Viruses 2010; 2:1844-1866. [PMID: 21994711 PMCID: PMC3185754 DOI: 10.3390/v2091844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Revised: 08/17/2010] [Accepted: 08/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic adenovirus (Ad) vectors present a new modality to treat cancer. These vectors attack tumors via replicating in and killing cancer cells. Upon completion of the vector replication cycle, the infected tumor cell lyses and releases progeny virions that are capable of infecting neighboring tumor cells. Repeated cycles of vector replication and cell lysis can destroy the tumor. Numerous Ad vectors have been generated and tested, some of them reaching human clinical trials. In 2005, the first oncolytic Ad was approved for the treatment of head-and-neck cancer by the Chinese FDA. Oncolytic Ads have been proven to be safe, with no serious adverse effects reported even when high doses of the vector were injected intravenously. The vectors demonstrated modest anti-tumor effect when applied as a single agent; their efficacy improved when they were combined with another modality. The efficacy of oncolytic Ads can be improved using various approaches, including vector design, delivery techniques, and ancillary treatment, which will be discussed in this review.
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Toth K, Dhar D, Wold WSM. Oncolytic (replication-competent) adenoviruses as anticancer agents. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2010; 10:353-68. [PMID: 20132057 DOI: 10.1517/14712590903559822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Whilst therapies for neoplasies have advanced tremendously in the last few decades, there is still a need for new anti-cancer treatments. One option is genetically-engineered oncolytic adenovirus (Ad) 'vectors'. These kill cancer cells via the viral replication cycle, and amplify the anti-tumor effect by producing progeny virions able to infect neighboring tumor cells. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW We provide a description of basic Ad biology and summarize the literature for oncolytic Ads from 1996 to the present. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN An overall view of oncolytic Ads, the merits and drawbacks of the various features of these vectors, and obstacles to further development and future directions for research. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Ads are attractive for gene therapy because they are relatively innocuous, easy to produce in large quantities, genetically stable, and easy to manipulate. A variety of have been constructed and tested, in pre-clinical and clinical experiments. Oncolytic Ads proved to be remarkably safe; no dose-limiting toxicity was observed in any clinical trial, and the maximum tolerated dose was not reached. At present, the major challenge for researchers is to increase the efficacy of the vectors, and to incorporate oncolytic virotherapy into existing treatment protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karoly Toth
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
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Abstract
The Eph receptor tyrosine kinases and their ephrin ligands have intriguing expression patterns in cancer cells and tumour blood vessels, which suggest important roles for their bidirectional signals in many aspects of cancer development and progression. Eph gene mutations probably also contribute to cancer pathogenesis. Eph receptors and ephrins have been shown to affect the growth, migration and invasion of cancer cells in culture as well as tumour growth, invasiveness, angiogenesis and metastasis in vivo. However, Eph signalling activities in cancer seem to be complex, and are characterized by puzzling dichotomies. Nevertheless, the Eph receptors are promising new therapeutic targets in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena B Pasquale
- Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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