Effect of norcantharidin on proliferation and invasion of human gallbladder carcinoma GBC-SD cells

Bibliometric Analysis and Systemic Review of Cantharidin Research Worldwide

BACKGROUND

Cantharidin (CTD), a natural toxic compound from blister beetle Mylabris, has been used for cancer treatment for millenary. CTD and its analogs have become mainstream adjuvant drugs with radiotherapy and chemotherapy in clinical applications. However, the detailed pharmacology mechanism of CTD was not fully elucidated.

METHODS

Publications of CTD were collected from the Web of Science Core Collection database from 1991 to 2023 using CiteSpace, VOSviewer, and Scimago Graphica software.

RESULTS

A total of 1,611 publications of CTD were mainly published in China and the United States. The University of Newcastle has published the most researches. Mcclusey, Adam, Sakoff, Jennette, and Zhang, Yalin had the most CTD publications with higher H. Notably, CTD researches were mainly published in Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters and the Journal of Biological Chemistry. Cluster profile results revealed that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), human gallbladder carcinoma, Aidi injection, and cell apoptosis were the hotspots. Concentration on the pharmacology function of PP2A subunit regulation, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and cardiotoxicity mechanism should be strengthened in the future.

CONCLUSION

Bibliometric analysis combined with a systemic review of CTD research first revealed that PP2A and CTD analogs were the knowledge base of CTD, and PP2A subunit regulation and toxic mechanism could be the frontiers of CTD.

Norcantharidin counteracts acquired everolimus resistance in renal cell carcinoma by dual inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 and complex 2 pathways in Vitro

Everolimus, an oral mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) inhibitor, presents a therapeutic option in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) patients who were intolerant to, or previously failed, immune- and vascular endothelial growth factor-targeted therapies. However, the onset of drug resistance limits its clinical use. One possible mechanism underpinning the resistance is that inhibiting mTORC1 by everolimus results in mTORC2-dependent activation of v-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene (AKT) and upregulation of hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIF). Norcantharidin (NCTD) is a demethylated derivative of cantharidin with antitumor properties which is an active ingredient of the traditional Chinese medicine Mylabris. In this study, everolimus-resistant RCC cells (786-O-R) obtained by chronic everolimus treatment revealed higher level of HIF2α and over-activated mTORC2 pathway and NCTD inhibits cell proliferation in both everolimus-resistant and -sensitive RCC cells by arresting cell cycle in G0/G1 phase and reducing cell cycle-related proteins of C-Myc and cyclin D. Furthermore, NCTD shows synergistic anticancer effects combined with everolimus in everolimus-resistant 786-O-R cells. Mechanically, NCTD repressed both mTORC1 and mTORC2 signaling pathways as well as downstream molecular signaling pathways, such as p-4EBP1, p-AKT, HIF1α and HIF2α. Our findings provide sound evidence that combination of NCTD and everolimus is a potential therapeutic strategy for treating RCC and overcoming everolimus resistance by dual inhibition of mTORC1 and mTORC2.

Antitumor potential of the protein phosphatase inhibitor, cantharidin, and selected derivatives

Cantharidin is a potent natural protein phosphatase monoterpene anhydride inhibitor secreted by several species of blister beetle, with its demethylated anhydride analogue, (S)-palasonin, occurring as a constituent of the higher plant Butea frondosa. Cantharidin shows both potent protein phosphatase inhibitory and cancer cell cytotoxic activities, but possible preclinical development of this anhydride has been limited thus far by its toxicity. Thus, several synthetic derivatives of cantharidin have been prepared, of which some compounds exhibit improved antitumor potential and may have use as lead compounds. In the present review, the potential antitumor activity, structure-activity relationships, and development of cantharidin-based anticancer drug conjugates are summarized, with protein phosphatase-related and other types of mechanisms of action discussed. Protein phosphatases play a key role in the tumor microenvironment, and thus described herein is also the potential for developing new tumor microenvironment-targeted cancer chemotherapeutic agents, based on cantharidin and its naturally occurring analogues and synthetic derivatives.

Insight into norcantharidin, a small-molecule synthetic compound with potential multi-target anticancer activities

Norcantharidin (NCTD) is a demethylated derivative of cantharidin, which is an anticancer active ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine, and is currently used clinically as a routine anti-cancer drug in China. Clarifying the anticancer effect and molecular mechanism of NCTD is critical for its clinical application. Here, we summarized the physiological, chemical, pharmacokinetic characteristics and clinical applications of NCTD. Besides, we mainly focus on its potential multi-target anticancer activities and underlying mechanisms, and discuss the problems existing in clinical application and scientific research of NCTD, so as to provide a potential anticancer therapeutic agent for human malignant tumors.

Comparative assessment of therapeutic safety of norcantharidin, N-farnesyloxy-norcantharimide, and N-farnesyl-norcantharimide against Jurkat T cells relative to human normal lymphoblast: A quantitative pilot study

The therapeutic safety of an anticancer drug is one of the most important concerns of the physician treating the cancer patient. Half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) and hillslope are usually used to represent the strength and sensitivity of an anticancer drug on cancer cells. The therapeutic safety of the anticancer drug can be assessed by comparing the IC50 and hillslope of anticancer drugs on cancer cells relative to normal cells. Since there are situations where "more anticancer activity" implies "more toxicity," the safety of an anticancer drug in these situations is hard to evaluate by using IC50 and hillslope alone. In a previous study, the "net effect" index was devised to represent the net therapeutic effects of one anticancer drug relative to the other. However, the therapeutic safety of one specific anticancer drug alone was not defined in the "net effect" index. This study introduced the "safety index (SI)" to quantify the degree of safety of an anticancer drug by using 4-parameter logistic model on cancer cells relative to normal cells. The therapeutic safety of norcantharidin (NCTD), N-farnesyloxy-norcantharimide (NOC15), and N-farnesyl-norcantharimide (NC15) in the treatment of Jurkat T cells relative to human normal lymphoblast was compared using the newly defined SI. We found that the SI of NOC15 and NC15 was significantly higher than that of NCTD, suggesting that both NOC15 and NC15 can damage more cancer cells and less normal cells than NCTD. We conclude that both NOC15 and NC15 are safer anticancer drugs than NCTD in the treatment of Jurkat T cells relative to human normal lymphoblast. The SI can be further applied to the screening, developments, and applications of anticancer drugs in the future.

N-Farnesyloxy-norcantharimide inhibits progression of human leukemic Jurkat T cells through regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and interleukin-2 production

This study investigated the anticancer effects of N-farnesyloxy-norcantharimide (NOC15), a newly synthesized norcantharidin (NCTD) analogue, on human leukemic Jurkat T cells and the signaling pathway underlying its effects. We found that the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of NOC15 on Jurkat T cells is 1.4 μmol/l, which is 11.14-fold (=15.6÷1.4) smaller than the 15.6 μmol/l of NCTD on Jurkat T cells, whereas the IC50 of NOC15 on human normal lymphoblast (HNL) is 207.9 μmol/l, which is 8.17-fold (=1698.0÷207.8) smaller than the 1698.0 μmol/l of NCTD on HNL cells. These results indicated that NOC15 exerts a higher anticancer effect on Jurkat T cells and has higher toxicity toward HNL cells than NCTD. Thus, NOC15 is 1.36-fold (=11.14÷8.17) beneficial as an anticancer agent toward Jurkat T cells compared with NCTD. Moreover, NOC15 can increase the percentage of cells in the sub-G1 phase and reduce the cell viability of Jurkat T cells, stimulate p38 and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway, and inhibit calcineurin expression and interleukin-2 (IL-2) production. However, NOC15 exerted no effects on the Jun-N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) signaling pathway, the production of IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α. We conclude that the anticancer activity of the newly synthesized NOC15 is 1.36-fold beneficial than NCTD as an anticancer agent and that NOC15 can increase the percentage of cells in the sub-G1 phase through the stimulation of p38 and ERK1/2 of the MAPK signaling pathway and the inhibition of calcineurin expression and IL-2 production. The NOC15 may have the potential of being developed into an anticancer agent in the future.

Pachymic acid inhibits tumorigenesis in gallbladder carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

Gallbladder cancer, with high aggressivity and extremely poor prognosis, is the most common malignancy of the bile duct. Thus, seeking targets gallbladder tumor cells is an attractive goal towards improving clinical treatment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this study, we investigated the effects of pachymic acid (PA) on the tumorigenesis of human gallbladder cancer cells.

RESULTS

We found that PA significantly reduced cell growth in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. Meanwhile, cell cycle arrest at G0 phase was induced by PA. PA also significantly inhibited cancer cell migration, invasion in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, we demonstrated that cancer cell adhesion ability was suppressed dose-dependently, which may contribute to the inhibition of cell invasion. Finally, we showed that PA inhibited AKT and ERK signaling pathways. And oncoproteins, such as PCNA, ICAM-1 and RhoA which are involved intumorigenesis, were also downregulated by PA.

CONCLUSION

Our study reveals that PA is able to inhibit gallbladder cancer tumorigenesis involving affection of AKT and ERK signaling pathways. Together, these results encourage further studies of PA as a promising candidate for gallbladder cancer therapy.

A potential small-molecule synthetic antilymphangiogenic agent norcantharidin inhibits tumor growth and lymphangiogenesis of human colonic adenocarcinomas through blocking VEGF-A,-C,-D/VEGFR-2,-3 "multi-points priming" mechanisms in vitro and in vivo

Background

Tumor lymphangiogenesis plays an important role in promoting growth and metastasis of tumors, but no antilymphangiogenic agent is used clinically. Based on the effect of norcantharidin (NCTD) on lymphangiogenesis of human lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs), we firstly investigated the antilymphangiogenic activity of NCTD as a tumor lymphangiogenic inhibitor for human colonic adenocarcinomas (HCACs).

Methods

In vivo and in vitro experiments to determine the effects of NCTD on tumor growth and lymphangiogenesis of the in-situ colonic xenografts in nude mice, and lymphatic tube formation of the three-dimensional (3-D) of the co-culture system of HCAC HT-29 cells and LECs were done. Proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, Ki-67, Bcl-2 and cell cycle of LECs and the co-culture system in vitro were respectively determined. Streparidin-peroxidase staining, SABC, western blotting and RT-PCR were respectively used to examine the expression of LYVE-1, D2-40, CK20 (including their LMVD), and VEGF-A, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 in vitro and in vivo.

Results

NCTD inhibited tumor growth and lymphangiogenesis of the in-situ colonic xenografts in vivo, and these observations were confirmed by facts that lymphatic tube formation, proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, S-phase cell cycle, and Ki-67 and Bcl-2 expression in vitro, and LYVE-1, D2-40, CK20 expression and their LMVD in vitro and in vivo were inhibited and affected. Furthermore, the expression of VEGF-A, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 at protein/mRNA levels in the process of lymphatic tube formation in vitro and tumor lymphangiogenesis in vivo was downregulated; NCTD in combination with mF4-31C1 or Sorafenib enhanced these effects.

Conclusions

NCTD inhibits tumor growth and lymphangiogenesis of HCACs through “multi-points priming” mechanisms i.e. affecting related malignant phenotypes, inhibiting Ki-67 and Bcl-2 expression, inducing S-phase cell cycle arrest, and directly or indirectly downregulating VEGF-A,-C,-D/VEGFR-2,-3 signaling pathways. The present finding strongly suggests that NCTD could serve as a potential antilymphangiogenic agent for tumor lymphangiogenesis and is of importance to explore NCTD is used for antitumor metastatic comprehensive therapy for HCACs.

N-Farnesyloxy-norcantharimide and N-farnesyl-norcantharimide inhibit the progression of leukemia and increase survival days in a syngeneic mouse leukemia model

This study investigated the anticancer effects of two newly synthesized norcantharidin analogs, N-farnesyloxy-norcantharimide (NOC15) and N-farnesyl-norcantharimide (NC15), in L1210 cells and in a syngeneic mouse leukemia model (L1210 cell line plus DBA/2 mice). We found that the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of NOC15 and NC15 on L1210 cells is 1.56 and 2.62 μmol/l, respectively, and that the IC50 of NOC15 and NC15 on human normal lymphoblast is 207.9 and 2569 μmol/l, respectively. In cell cycle analysis, NOC15 could increase the sub-G1 phase, whereas NC15 could induce G2/M arrest. Annexin-V apoptosis assay indicated that both NOC15 and NC15 could induce cell apoptosis. In the syngeneic mouse leukemia model, both NOC15 and NC15 could increase the survival days of mice and decrease the tumor weight. Moreover, both NOC15 and NC15 could retard the increase in peripheral blood leukocyte count due to L1210 cells. In the subcutaneous (s.c.) group, the treatment with NOC15 could retard the decrease in the weight of the liver and the spleen caused by L1210 cells, whereas the treatment with NC15 could retard the decrease in the weight of the spleen caused by L1210 cells. We conclude that the new compounds NOC15 and NC15 have strong anticancer activity and low toxicity both in vitro and in vivo. NOC15 and NC15 may have the potential to be developed into anticancer agents in the future.

Inhibition of tumor vasculogenic mimicry and prolongation of host survival in highly aggressive gallbladder cancers by norcantharidin via blocking the ephrin type a receptor 2/focal adhesion kinase/paxillin signaling pathway

Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) is a newly-defined tumor microcirculation pattern in highly aggressive malignant tumors. We recently reported tumor growth and VM formation of gallbladder cancers through the contribution of the ephrin type a receptor 2 (EphA2)/focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/Paxillin signaling pathways. In this study, we further investigated the anti-VM activity of norcantharidin (NCTD) as a VM inhibitor for gallbladder cancers and the underlying mechanisms. In vivo and in vitro experiments to determine the effects of NCTD on tumor growth, host survival, VM formation of GBC-SD nude mouse xenografts, and vasculogenic-like networks, malignant phenotypes i.e., proliferation, apoptosis, invasion and migration of GBC-SD cells. Expression of VM signaling-related markers EphA2, FAK and Paxillin in vivo and in vitro were examined by immunofluorescence, western blotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), respectively. The results showed that after treatment with NCTD, GBC-SD cells were unable to form VM structures when injecting into nude mouse, growth of the xenograft was inhibited and these observations were confirmed by facts that VM formation by three-dimensional (3-D) matrix, proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, migration of GBC-SD cells were affected; and survival time of the xenograft mice was prolonged. Furthermore, expression of EphA2, FAK and Paxillin proteins/mRNAs of the xenografts was downregulated. Thus, we concluded that NCTD has potential anti-VM activity against human gallbladder cancers; one of the underlying mechanisms may be via blocking the EphA2/FAK/Paxillin signaling pathway.

Norcantharidin, derivative of cantharidin, for cancer stem cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) existing in human cancers have been demonstrated to be a major cause of cancer treatment resistance, invasion, metastasis, and relapse. Self-renewal pathways, Wnt/β-catenin, Sonic hedgehog (Shh), and the Notch signaling pathway play critical roles in developing CSCs and lead to angiogenesis, migration, invasion, and metastasis. Multidrug resistance (MDR) is an unfavorable factor causing the failure of treatments against cancer cells. The most important and thoroughly studied mechanism involved in MDR is the active efflux of chemotherapeutic agents through membrane drug transporters. There is growing evidence that Norcantharidin (NCTD), a water-soluble synthetic small molecule derivative of naturally occurring cantharidin from the medicinal insect blister beetle (Mylabris phalerata Pallas), is capable of chemoprevention and tumor inhibition. We summarize investigations into the modulation of self-renewal pathways and MDR in CSCs by NCTD. This review may aid in further investigation of using NCTD to develop more effective strategies for cancer treatment to reduce resistance and recurrence.

Norcantharidin inhibits tumor angiogenesis via blocking VEGFR2/MEK/ERK signaling pathways

Norcantharidin (NCTD), the demethylated form of Cantharidin, a reagent isolated from blister beetles, has been shown to be an anti-tumor agent capable of inhibiting proliferation as well as inducing apoptosis in many cancer cell lines. However, little is known about the effect of NCTD in tumor angiogenesis. In this study, we demonstrated that NCTD inhibited vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and capillary tube formation of primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, we showed NCTD inhibited tumor growth and angiogenesis of colon cancer cells (LOVO) in vivo. We then mechanistically described that NCTD specifically abrogated the phosphorylation/activation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2)/MEK/ERK pathway kinases, with little effect on the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and Akt, and on Cox-2 expression. In summary, our results indicate that NCTD is a potential inhibitor of tumor angiogenesis by blocking VEGFR2/MEK/ERK signaling.

Norcantharidin Induces HL-60 Cells Apoptosis In Vitro

Norcantharidin (NCTD) is the demethylated form of cantharidin, which is the active substance of mylabris, and is known to have anticancer potentials. The aim of this paper was to assess the apoptosis-inducing effect of NCTD on HL-60 cells. Methods. The effects of NCTD were detected by flow cytometer on the cell toxicity, cell cycle, and apoptosis of HL-60 cells cultured in vitro. Results. After 48-hour treatment with NCTD, the growth of HL-60 cells was inhibited significantly. The summit of apoptosis appeared after 24 hours. The percentage of the cells in G₁ phase decreased and then increased in S and G₂+ M phase, while the S and G₂+ M phases were blocked after treatment with 5, 10, and 50 μmol/L NCTD for 24 hours. Conclusions. NCTD can induce the apoptosis of HL-60 cells and inhibit the fissiparism, and the domino effect was obviously correlated with the time and dosage.

Norcantharidin induces HT-29 colon cancer cell apoptosis through the alphavbeta6-extracellular signal-related kinase signaling pathway

Norcantharidin has been used as an efficacious anticancer drug in China for many years, but its true mechanism remains poorly understood. Intriguingly, in an in vitro series study of anticancer drugs, we found that norcantharidin can effectively inhibit epithelial tumor cells from expressing integrin alphavbeta6. Our previous studies have confirmed that integrin alphavbeta6 is closely relevant to malignant epithelial cell tumor biology behavior, and it can promote cancer cells to invade and metastasize through a special alphavbeta6-extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) direct signaling pathway. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the norcantharidin anticancer mechanism and integrin alphavbeta6. After HT-29 colon cancer cells were treated with norcantharidin, cell apoptosis increased remarkably. The expression of alphavbeta6 and the amount of p-ERK decreased substantially; simultaneously, the linkage between alphavbeta6 and ERK was barely detectable. However, the expression of other integrins and the levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase hardly changed. On these grounds, we presumed that norcantharidin induced HT-29 colon cancer cell apoptosis through the alphavbeta6-ERK signaling pathway. This finding elicited a novel strategy for targeting the whole alphavbeta6-ERK signal pathway, rather than simply blocking the combining site of alphavbeta6-ERK in colon cancer treatment.

Isolation of a human gallbladder cancer cell clone with high invasive phenotype in vitro and metastatic potential in orthotopic model and inhibition of its invasiveness by heparanase antisense oligodeoxynucleotides

The mechanisms involved in gallbladder cancer metastasis still remain unclear to date. The poor understanding is due, in part, to the lack of ideal cell line and animal model for study. In the present study, 21 cell clones were isolated from the human gallbladder carcinoma cells GBC-SD and the cell clone GBC-SDH(i) with high invasive phenotype was fished out. The invasive phenotype and metastatic potential of GBC-SDH(i) were confirmed in a novel surgical orthotopic implantation model of gallbladder cancer in nude mice. Heparanase, an endoglycosidase that degrades heparan sulfate, is a critical mediator of tumor metastasis and angiogenesis. RT-PCR, real time RT-PCR and western blot showed that the expression levels of heparanase were significant difference between GBC-SDH(i) and its parent cells. After treated with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides, the heparanase mRNA and protein expression in GBC-SDH(i) cells were significantly decreased and its invasive potential in vitro was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner. The study provides a useful cell clone and a clinically relevant orthotopic tumor model for the metastatic study in human gallbladder cancer. The roles of heparanase in gallbladder cancer are also evaluated.