Post-liver transplant hepatitis C virus recurrence: An unresolved thorny problem

Immune Responses to Anti-Hepatitis C Virus Antibodies during Pre-Liver Transplantation Direct-Acting Antiviral Therapy in Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Recipients Associated with Post-Liver Transplantation Allograft Injury

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The impact of antibody responses following direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected recipients before and after liver transplantation (LT) is still undetermined.

METHODS

In this observational cohort study, we aimed to explore the association between changes in anti-HCV antibody titers following pre-LT DAA therapy and allograft injury, including biliary complications (BCs) and acute cellular rejection (ACR).

RESULTS

A total of 153 cases were enrolled from January 2015 to February 2021. Serum anti-HCV antibody titers were assessed before and after (day 30) LT. Among all recipients, 31/153 (20.3%) had pre-LT DAA therapy (the DAA group) and 122/153 (79.7%) did not undergo pre-LT DAA therapy (the DAA-naïve group). A higher incidence of post-LT BCs was observed in the DAA group (p = 0.028). Compared with the DAA-naïve group, the DAA group had a significantly higher mean level of anti-HCV titer upregulation (p = 0.0024); furthermore, among the recipients with BCs (n = 28) and ACR (n = 41), those in the DAA group exhibited significantly higher mean levels of anti-HCV antibody titer upregulation (p < 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we speculate that the upregulation of anti-HCV antibody titers, which might have been induced via the restoration of HCV-specific immune responses through pre-LT DAA therapy, was associated with post-LT allograft injury.

A Comprehensive Review of Liver Allograft Fibrosis and Steatosis: From Cause to Diagnosis

Despite advances in posttransplant care, long-term outcomes for liver transplant recipients remain unchanged. Approximately 25% of recipients will advance to graft cirrhosis and require retransplantation. Graft fibrosis progresses in the context of de novo or recurrent disease. Recurrent hepatitis C virus infection was previously the most important cause of graft failure but is now curable in the majority of patients. However, with an increasing prevalence of obesity and diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease as the most rapidly increasing indication for liver transplantation, metabolic dysfunction-associated liver injury is anticipated to become an important cause of graft fibrosis alongside alloimmune hepatitis and alcoholic liver disease. To better understand the landscape of the graft fibrosis literature, we summarize the associated epidemiology, cause, potential mechanisms, diagnosis, and complications. We additionally highlight the need for better noninvasive methods to ameliorate the management of graft fibrosis. Some examples include leveraging the microbiome, genetic, and machine learning methods to address these limitations. Overall, graft fibrosis is routinely seen by transplant clinicians, but it requires a better understanding of its underlying biology and contributors that can help inform diagnostic and therapeutic practices.

Histologic features of allograft livers in patients treated for rejection before biopsy

Liver biopsy is essential for management in liver transplant patients with clinical features suspicious for acute cellular rejection (ACR). As more patients are transplanted for noninfectious indications, it has become increasingly common for them to receive treatment for presumed ACR before biopsy. The effect of pretreatment on the classic histologic triad of ACR's mixed portal inflammation, endothelialitis, and bile duct damage is not well described. Here we report a retrospective study of 70 liver transplant biopsies performed on 53 patients for suspected ACR between 2018 and 2021. Thirty-seven biopsies had a clinical diagnosis of ACR after biopsy. Pretreatment with steroids, antithymocyte globulin, or other increased immunosuppression was given before biopsy in 17 of 37 cases; 20 not-pretreated cases acted as controls. A representative hematoxylin and eosin-stained slide from each biopsy was reviewed independently in a blinded fashion by 3 hepatic pathologists, graded according to the Banff system, assigned a Rejection Activity Index (RAI), and assessed for other histologic features. We found that pretreated biopsies had significantly less portal inflammation (P < .001), less endothelialitis (P < .001), lower RAI (P < .001), and less prominent eosinophils (P = .048) compared to not-pretreated biopsies. There was no significant difference for the other examined variables, including bile duct inflammation/damage (P = .32). Our findings suggest that portal inflammation and endothelialitis become less prominent with pretreatment, whereas bile duct inflammation/damage may take longer to resolve. When evaluating biopsies for suspected ACR, the finding of bile duct inflammation/damage should raise the possibility of partially treated ACR, even in the absence of endothelialitis and portal inflammation.

Reinfection of Transplanted Livers in HCV- and HCV/HIV-Infected Patients Is Characterized by a Different MicroRNA Expression Profile

Background: After liver transplantation, HCV/HIV co-infected patients present, compared to the HCV mono-infected ones, increased HCV viral load, rapid progression to liver fibrosis and higher mortality. Liver biopsies (LB), obtained routinely 6 months after transplantation, represent a unique model to assess the early events related to graft re-infection. Here, we used miRNA sequencing of LB obtained from both HCV-and HCV/HIV-infected recipients, to identify transcriptional profiles able to explain the more severe outcome of these latter. Methods: miRNAs of 3 healthy livers, 3 HCV-LB and 3 HCV/HIV-LB were sequenced by Illumina HiSeq2500 platform. The DIANA-miRPath v3.0 webserver and DIANA-microT-CDS algorithm (v5.0) were used to characterize the functions of differentially expressed (DE-) miRNAs, querying the KEGG and Gene Ontology-Biological Process databases. Results: LB obtained from infected patients were characterized, with respect to controls, by a miRNA profile related to viral infection, immune system signaling and DNA damage in HCV-induced carcinogenesis. Instead, HCV-LB and HCV/HIV-LB differed in the expression of miRNAs involved in immunological and apoptotic processes and in extracellular matrix remodeling. Conclusions: liver reinfection processes are associated with early miRNA changes. Further studies are necessary to establish their prognostic role and possible actionability.

Liver Transplantation Using Hepatitis C Virus-Viremic Donors Into Hepatitis C Virus-Aviremic Recipients as Standard of Care

Liver transplantation (LT) using allografts from hepatitis C virus (HCV)-viremic/nucleic acid testing-positive donors' (DNAT+) organs into HCV-aviremic recipients (rHCV-) has been limited owing to nearly universal HCV transmission and concerns regarding availability, safety, and efficacy post-LT with direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy. We report our experience of LT using DNAT+ organs into rHCV- as a routine standard of care. Following verification of DAA access, absence of critical drug-drug interactions (DDIs) with DAAs, and informed consent, allocated DNAT+ organs were offered to patients on the waiting list for LT irrespective of recipient HCV status. Between June 2018 and December 2019, 292/339 rHCV- received an LT. Forty-seven patients were excluded from analysis because of recipient HCV viremia, refusal to receive DNAT+ organs, or inability to receive DAA therapy post-LT. Of these 292 patients, 61 rHCV- received DNAT+ livers (study group), and 231 rHCV- received DNAT- (aviremic donors [nuclear acid test-negative donors]) livers (control group). Recipient and donor characteristics as well as 1-year post-LT patient and graft survival were similar between groups. In the study group, 4 patients died, and 1 patient required retransplantation within the first year post-LT (all unrelated to HCV); 56 patients received DAA therapy, with a median time from LT to the start of DAA treatment of 66.9 days (interquartile range [IQR], 36-68.5), and 51 patients completed DAA treatment, all achieving sustained virologic response for 12 or more weeks (SVR-12) (1 patient required retreatment owing to relapse following initial DAA therapy). No patients had evidence of fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis or extrahepatic manifestations of HCV. This report indicates that transplantation of DNAT+ livers into rHCV- and subsequent DAA therapy is associated with clinical outcomes comparable to those achieved with DNAT- allografts.

Transplantation of liver from hepatitis C-infected donors to hepatitis C RNA-negative recipients: Histological and virologic outcome

BACKGROUND

The virologic and histologic outcomes of a hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected liver graft into an HCV-negative recipient are not well understood. We aimed to evaluate the sustained virologic response (SVR) rate and the liver histology at 1 year post-Orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) with an HCV-infected graft.

METHODS

A total of 33 patients received the HCV antibody (Ab)+/nucleic acid amplification test (NAT)+ graft. Of these patients, 23 were HCV-negative recipients and 10 were HCV-positive recipients. The 1-year biopsy data were available for 24 patients: 15 patients in HCV-negative group who received an HCV Ab+/NAT+graft and 9 patients in HCV-positive group who received an HCV Ab+/NAT+ graft. Patients with (+) HCV ribonucleic acid (RNA) were started on direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatment approximately 107 days after OLT using either a Glecaprevir-Pibrentasvir or Sofosbuvir-Velpatasvir or Sofosbuvir-Ledipasvir.

RESULTS

All patients (n = 33) were treated with DAA and achieved SVR. The 1-year post-OLT liver biopsies were available in 24 patients: 9 patients had F1 and F2 fibrosis and 17 patients had minimal to moderate inflammation. There was no statistical difference in fibrosis and inflammation between the HCV-negative vs. HCV-positive recipients. All patients who received the NAT+ graft developed viremia and subsequently achieved SVR with treatment.

CONCLUSION

At 1 year protocol liver biopsy, patients had inflammation consistent with viral hepatitis despite the successful eradication of HCV.

Treatment of Hepatitis C Post-Liver Transplantation Could Mitigate Discard Rates of Hepatitis C-Positive Deceased Donor Livers and Expand the Donor Pool

Background

Prior to 2014, treatment for hepatitis C was limited. However, the subsequent introduction of direct acting antiviral medications (DAA) against hepatitis C led to improvements in morbidity and better medication tolerance. DAA therapy allowed for an increase in treatment rates of hepatitis C in patients on the liver transplant waiting list. With the popularization of DAA, there became a growing concern about the utility of hepatitis C-positive (HCV+) deceased liver donors, especially after treating HCV+ potential recipients on the transplant waiting list.

Methods

This is a retrospective, observational study using Mid-America Transplant Services (MTS) database from 2008 to 2017. Comparison was made before the widespread use of DAAs 2008–2013 (pre-DAA) against their common practice use 2014–2017 (post-DAA). All deceased liver donors with HCV antibody or nucleic acid positive results were evaluated.

Results

Between 2008 and 2017, 96 deceased liver donors were positive for HCV. In the pre-DAA era, 47 deceased liver donors were positive for HCV, of which 32 (68.1%) were transplanted and 15 (31.9%) were discarded. In the post-DAA era, a total of 49 HCV+ organs were identified, out of which 43 (87.8%) livers were transplanted and 6 (12.2%) were discarded. Discard rate was significantly higher in the pre-DAA population (31.9% vs. 12.2%, p = 0.026). Secondary analysis showed a distinct trend towards increased regional sharing and utilization of HCV+ donors.

Conclusion

In order to reduce discard rates of HCV+ patients, our data suggest that transplant centers could potentially delay HCV treatment in patients on the transplant waitlist.

Long-Term Tacrolimus Blood Trough Level and Patient Survival in Adult Liver Transplantation

Tacrolimus is the most widely used immunosuppressant in liver transplant (LT) patients. However, the ideal long-term target level for these patients is unknown. This retrospective study aimed to investigate the impact of tacrolimus blood concentration five years after LT on long-term patient survival outcomes in adult LT recipients. Patients who underwent LT between January 2004 and July 2014 at a tertiary medical center were included in this study (n = 189). The mean tacrolimus blood concentrations of each patient during the fifth year after LT were recorded and the overall survival rate was determined. A multivariate analysis of factors associated with long-term survival was conducted using a Cox’s model. The median follow-up period was 9.63 years, and 144 patients (76.2%) underwent live donor LT. Sixteen patients died within 5 years of LT. In the Cox’s model, patients with a mean tacrolimus blood trough level of 4.6–10.2 ng/mL had significantly better long-term survival than those with a mean tacrolimus blood trough level outside this range (estimated hazard ratio = 4.76; 95% confidence interval: 1.34–16.9, p = 0.016). Therefore, a tacrolimus level no lower than 4.6 ng/mL would be recommended in adult LT patients.

Recipient interleukin 6 gene polymorphism and expression predict HCV recurrence post liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

Liver transplantation (LTX)is a lifesaving- effective protocol for patients suffering end stage liver disease (ESLD) and its complications post HCV infection. Recurrence of disease is a frequent clinical complication that is observed in patients undergoing LTX. Cytokines play a central role in the immunological events occurring after the surgery.

METHODS

Using Allelic Discrimination PCR, the allelic variation G174C of IL-6 gene was investigated. The abundance of IL6- mRNA and plasma IL6 cytokine levels were evaluated by using qRT-PCR in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) respectively in 76 liver transplant recipients recruited from Al Sahel teaching hospital, Ministry of Health and Population Cairo Egypt within the period between June 2015 and October 2017.

RESULTS

The frequencies of IL-6 GG genotype and the G allele were significantly detected more in LTX recipients who experienced HCV recurrence versus those who did not suffer recurrence when compared to healthy controls (P = 0.001) and (P = 0.006), respectively. On the contrary, levels of IL-6 related transcripts in PBMC's of recurrent patients were indifferent from non-recurrent patients and healthy controls (P ≥ 0.124). Interestingly, the circulating IL-6 protein in plasma was significantly elevated in recurrent as compared to the non-recurrent recipients (P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

HCV recurrence post liver transplantation occur more frequently in patients with -174 G/G IL-6 genotype and elevated plasma IL-6 levels.

Indeterminate Prediction of Hepatitis C Virus Genotype by Commercial Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay Resolving by Sequencing to Avoid the Consequence of Inaccurate Typing

Pakistan is ranked second highest after Egypt in hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Accurate typing is mandatory to be compliant with the World Health Organization strategy to eliminate HCV infection in 2030. We characterized the HCV genotypes using Abbott real-time polymerase chain reaction assay and indeterminate samples were sequenced. We also investigated the distribution of HCV genotype among different age groups and gender in chronic HCV patients. One thousand thirteen samples were tested for HCV genotyping using Abbott real-time HCV genotyping assay. RNA extraction from plasma was done using the m2000sp platform. The amplification and detection of genotypes was done on m2000rt instrument. The lower limit of detection assay is 500 IU/mL. The indeterminate genotypes were analyzed by sequencing of the NS5B region. We found genotype 1 in 1.68%, genotype 1b in 0.89%, genotype 1a in 0.79%, genotype 2 in 0.6, genotype 3 in 94.37%, genotype 4 in 0.4%, genotype 5 in 0.09%, and indeterminate genotype result were found in 1.18%. Abbott assay could not identify 12 samples of genotype 3 (1.18%) and gave the indeterminate result. It also fails to assign some of the samples of genotype 1 into 1a and 1b. The indeterminate genotypes were resolved by sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis. Genotype 3 is the predominant genotype and significantly higher in females as compared with males. Genotype 1a is more common in males than in females. Indeterminate HCV genotypes on sequencing analysis identify as genotype 3a and likewise subtype of genotype1 as 1a.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma Is a Negative Predictor of Sustained Viral Response in Liver Transplant Recipients With Hepatitis C Treated With Direct-Acting Antivirals

INTRODUCTION

Treatment with direct-acting antivirals (DAA) for hepatitis C (HCV) in liver transplant (LTX) recipients is very effective, but some studies showed that the treatment effectiveness might be impaired in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The study aimed to evaluate the predictors of DAA treatment failure in LTX recipients.

METHODS

Liver biopsy was done before the treatment in 107 of the 120 patients included. All patients had an abdominal ultrasound and liver elastography performed before and after the therapy. Blood HCV polymerase chain reaction was done before; during; and at 4, 12, and 24 weeks after the treatment.

RESULTS

Overall sustained viral response 24 weeks after treatment (SVR24) was 96%. There were 2 patients with HCC at the start of the DAA treatment and 3 cases of HCC recurrence during a 1-year follow-up. Treatment failure was observed in 1/115 (0.9%) patients without HCC and 4/5 (80%) with active HCC (P = .0001). Liver fibrosis and previous interferon treatment had no impact on treatment efficacy. Time to viremia elimination on treatment was shorter in the responder versus nonresponder group (28 vs 58 days, P = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

HCC is a negative predictor of DAA therapy success in LTX recipients.

The road map toward an hepatitis C virus-free transplant population

Antiviral therapy to eradicate hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection improves outcomes in patients undergoing liver transplantation (LT) for advanced chronic HCV with or without hepatocellular carcinoma. Traditionally, antiviral therapy focused on the use of interferon (IFN)-based regimens, with antiviral treatment initiated in the posttransplant period once recurrent HCV disease with fibrosis in the allograft was identified. The use of IFN-based therapy was limited in pretransplant patients with advanced liver disease. Earlier intervention, either before transplantation or early after LT, is now feasible with the advent of second-generation direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) with superior tolerability and efficacy to IFN-based therapy. These agents have the potential to reduce the number of patients developing HCV-related complications requiring LT and retransplantation, as well as reducing the demand for donor organs. We discuss the pros and cons of pretransplant, peritransplant, and posttransplant therapy with current DAAs, citing available data from clinical trials and real-world experience.

The safety and efficacy of ledipasvir/sofosbuvir with or without ribavirin in the treatment of orthotopic liver transplant recipients with recurrent hepatitis C: real-world data

BACKGROUND

Recurrent hepatitis C (RHC) in orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) population is associated with accelerated rates of fibrosis, low efficacy and decreased tolerability with traditional therapies.

AIM

The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (LED/SOF) with or without ribavirin (RBV) in OLT patients with RHC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients at least 3 months post-OLT and with documented RHC were treated with LED/SOF with or without RBV for either 12 or 24 weeks. End-of-treatment and sustained virological response 12 weeks after the completion of treatment were documented. Patients were closely monitored for treatment-related adverse effects and the potential need for adjustment in their immunosuppression.

RESULTS

Seventy-one patients were included in the study. Median age was 62 years. Median time from OLT was 55 months. Twenty-six (36.6%) patients were treatment-naive and 45 (63.4%) had previously failed interferon-based therapies. The majority of patients (57.7%) had stage F0-F2 fibrosis. Sixty-seven (94.3%) patients completed 12 weeks of LED/SOF with RBV, three patients completed 12 or 24 weeks of LED/SOF without RBV, and one patient completed only 8 weeks of LED/SOF without RBV owing to severe allograft dysfunction. Sustained virological response was near universal in our cohort (98.5%) regardless of genotype, fibrosis stage, and regimen or treatment duration. Most commonly reported side effects were malaise and gastrointestinal upset. No patient required adjustment in immunosuppression and no episodes of rejection were documented during treatment.

CONCLUSION

The combination of LED/SOF with RBV for 12 weeks or LED/SOF for 24 weeks is very effective and safe in treating OLT recipients with RHC.

Increased survival in hepatitis c patients who underwent living donor liver transplant: a case-control study with propensity score matching

Purpose

There is no consensus regarding the difference in outcomes of HCV in patients who receive living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) or compared to deceased donor liver transplantation (DDLT). The aims of this study were to compare characteristics between LDLT and DDLT groups and to identify risk factors affecting patient survival.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the multicenter records of 192 HCV RNA-positive patients who underwent liver transplantation.

Results

Thirty-five patients underwent DDLT, and 146 underwent LDLT. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year patient survival rates were 66.7%, 63.0%, and 63.0% in the DDLT group and 86.1%, 82.3%, and 79.5% in the LDLT group (P = 0.024), respectively. After propensity matching, the patient survival curve of the LDLT group was higher than that of the DDLT group. However, there was no statistically significant difference in patient survival between the 2 groups (P = 0.061). Recipient age ≥ 60 years, LDLT, and use of tacrolimus were positively associated with patient survival in multivariate analyses.

Conclusion

LDLT appears to be suitable for HCV-infected patients if appropriate living donor is available.

Predictors of hepatitis C virus recurrence after living donor liver transplantation: Mansoura experience

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS

Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related cirrhosis is the leading cause of liver transplantation (LT). All patients who undergo LT with detectable serum HCV-RNA experience graft reinfection, which is the most frequent cause of graft loss and death in these patients. We estimated the rate of HCV recurrence and evaluated the current therapeutic regimens.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The records of consecutive 325 living donor LT (LDLT) surgeries performed between May 2004 and August 2014 were retrospectively analysed; 207 of them were followed-up throughout the study. Clinical, laboratory, radiological and histopathological examinations were performed thoroughly. Patients received treatment in the form of either pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN) or sofosbuvir, both in combination with ribavirin.

RESULTS

In total, 90.3% of recipients who were transplanted because of HCV-related end-stage liver disease experienced recurrence due to the virus. The donor age was older in the HCV recurrent group versus the non-recurrence group (28.7±7.1 versus 22.6±2.6years: p≤0.001), warm ischaemia time was prolonged (46.1±18.1 versus 28.6±4.1min: p≤0.001), median cold ischaemia time was 40.0 (10-175) versus 22.5 (15-38) min (p≤0.001) and basal PCR was 414000 (546-116000000) versus 10766 (1230-40000) (p≤0.001). Sustained virological response was achieved in 95.4% of patients treated with a combination of a fixed daily dose of 400mg sofosbuvir with ribavirin and in 65.1% of those who were treated with PEG-IFN with ribavirin.

CONCLUSIONS

Older donor age and prolonged warm ischaemia time are independent predictors of HCV recurrence after LDLT, and early treatment with the direct-acting sofosbuvir is helpful in resolving the problem of post-LT HCV recurrence.

Practical Recommendations for Long-term Management of Modifiable Risks in Kidney and Liver Transplant Recipients: A Guidance Report and Clinical Checklist by the Consensus on Managing Modifiable Risk in Transplantation (COMMIT) Group

Short-term patient and graft outcomes continue to improve after kidney and liver transplantation, with 1-year survival rates over 80%; however, improving longer-term outcomes remains a challenge. Improving the function of grafts and health of recipients would not only enhance quality and length of life, but would also reduce the need for retransplantation, and thus increase the number of organs available for transplant. The clinical transplant community needs to identify and manage those patient modifiable factors, to decrease the risk of graft failure, and improve longer-term outcomes.COMMIT was formed in 2015 and is composed of 20 leading kidney and liver transplant specialists from 9 countries across Europe. The group's remit is to provide expert guidance for the long-term management of kidney and liver transplant patients, with the aim of improving outcomes by minimizing modifiable risks associated with poor graft and patient survival posttransplant.The objective of this supplement is to provide specific, practical recommendations, through the discussion of current evidence and best practice, for the management of modifiable risks in those kidney and liver transplant patients who have survived the first postoperative year. In addition, the provision of a checklist increases the clinical utility and accessibility of these recommendations, by offering a systematic and efficient way to implement screening and monitoring of modifiable risks in the clinical setting.

Early reduced liver graft survival in hepatitis C recipients identified by two combined genetic markers

HLA and IL-28B genes were independently associated with severity of HCV-related liver disease. We investigated the effects of these combined genetic factors on post-transplant survival in HCV-infected recipients, aiming to provide new data to define the optimal timing of novel antiviral therapies in the transplant setting. HLA-A/B/DRB1 alleles and IL-28B rs12979860 (C > T) polymorphism frequencies were determined in 449 HCV viremic recipients and in their donors. Median follow-up was 10 years; study outcome was graft survival. HLA-DRB1*11 phenotype and IL-28B C/C genotype were significantly less frequent in recipients than donors (27.8% vs. 45.9% and 27.4% vs. 44.9%, respectively, P < 0.00001). Ten-year graft survival was better in patients with HLA-DRB1*11 (P = 0.0183) or IL-28B C/C (P = 0.0436). Conversely, concomitant absence of HLA-DRB1*11 and IL-28B C/C in 228 (50.8%) predicted worse survival (P = 0.0006), which was already evident at the first post-transplant year (P = 0.0370). In multivariable Cox analysis, absence of both markers ranked second as risk factor for survival (HR = 1.74), following donor age ≥ 70 years (HR = 1.77). In the current era of direct-acting antiviral agents, the negative effects of this common immunogenetic profile in HCV-infected recipients could be most effectively neutralized by peri-transplant treatment. This should be particularly relevant in countries where elderly donors represent an unavoidable resource.

Effect of diabetes and acute rejection on liver transplant outcomes: An analysis of the organ procurement and transplantation network/united network for organ sharing database

The effects of diabetic status and acute rejection (AR) on liver transplant outcomes are largely unknown. We studied 13,736 liver recipients from the United Network for Organ Sharing/Organ Procurement Transplant Network database who underwent transplantation between 2004 and 2007 with a functioning graft for greater than 1 year. The association of pretransplant diabetes mellitus (PDM), new-onset diabetes after transplant (NODAT), and AR rates on allograft failure, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular mortality were determined. To determine the differential and joint effects of diabetic status and AR on transplant outcomes, recipients were further stratified into 6 groups: neither (reference, n = 6600); NODAT alone (n = 2054); PDM alone (n = 2414); AR alone (n = 1448); NODAT and AR (n = 707); and PDM and AR (n = 513). An analysis with hepatitis C virus (HCV) serostatus was also performed (HCV recipients, n = 6384; and non-HCV recipient, n = 5934). The median follow-up was 2537 days. The prevalence of PDM was 21.3%. At 1 year after transplant, the rates of NODAT and AR were 25.5% and 19.4%, respectively. Overall, PDM, NODAT, and AR were associated with increased risks for graft failure (PDM, hazard ratio [HR] = 1.31, P < 0.01; NODAT, HR = 1.11, P = 0.02; AR, HR = 1.28, P < 0.01). A multivariate Cox regression analysis of the 6 recipient groups demonstrated that NODAT alone was not significantly associated with any study outcomes. The presence of PDM, AR, NODAT and AR, and PDM and AR were associated with higher overall graft failure risk and mortality risk. The presence of PDM was associated with higher cardiovascular mortality risk. The analyses in both HCV-positive and HCV-negative cohorts showed a similar trend as in the overall cohort. In conclusion, PDM and AR, but not NODAT, is associated with increased mortality and liver allograft failure. Liver Transplantation 22 796-804 2016 AASLD.

Challenging hepatitis C-infected liver transplant patients

Caring for liver transplant patients suffering from chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a challenging task for transplant surgeons and primary physicians alike. HCV is the leading cause of liver transplantation in the USA and comes with a myriad of complications that increase morbidity and mortality. This review focuses on patient follow-up, spanning from before the liver transplant occurs to the patient's long-term health. Pretransplant, both donor and recipient variables, must be carefully chosen to ensure optimal surgical success. Risk factors must be identified and HCV viral load must be reduced to a minimum. In addition to standard transplant complications, HCV patients suffer from additional problems, such as fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis and widespread viremia. Physicians must focus on the balance of immunosuppressive and antiviral medications, while considering possible side effects from these potent drugs. Over the years following surgery, physicians must identify any signs of failing liver health, as HCV-positive patients have an increased risk for cirrhosis and certain life-threatening malignancies.

Hepatitis C virus infection: Are there still specific problems with genotype 3?

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is one of the most common causes of chronic liver disease and the main indication for liver transplantation worldwide. As promising specific treatments have been introduced for genotype 1, clinicians and researchers are now focusing on patients infected by non-genotype 1 HCV, particularly genotype 3. Indeed, in the golden era of direct-acting antiviral drugs, genotype 3 infections are no longer considered as easy to treat and are associated with higher risk of developing severe liver injuries, such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Moreover, HCV genotype 3 accounts for 40% of all HCV infections in Asia and is the most frequent genotype among HCV-positive injecting drug users in several countries. Here, we review recent data on HCV genotype 3 infection/treatment, including clinical aspects and the underlying genotype-specific molecular mechanisms.

Drug Interactions With Direct-Acting Antivirals for Hepatitis C: Implications for HIV and Transplant Patients

OBJECTIVE

Review pharmacokinetics of new direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) for hepatitis C (HCV) infection and interactions with concomitant immunosuppressant and antiretroviral therapies (ART).

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE (1948-January 2015), EMBASE (1964-January 2015), International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (1970-January 2015), Google, and Google Scholar were searched combining the terms simeprevir, sofosbuvir, ledipasvir, daclatasvir, paritaprevir, ABT-450, ombitasvir, dasabuvir, pharmacokinetics, drug interaction, drug metabolism, HIV, antiretroviral, immunosuppressant, transplant. Articles, conference proceedings, abstracts, and product monographs were reviewed.

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

Literature on pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic interactions with DAAs and immunosuppressants or ART was considered for inclusion. Pertinent information was extracted and summarized in the review. In the absence of data, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic principles were used to predict the likelihood of interactions.

DATA SYNTHESIS

DAA pharmacokinetics are reviewed and drug interaction data are presented with provision of management strategies. Fixed-dose combination paritaprevir/ritonavir/ombitasvir plus dasabuvir is most susceptible to drug interactions with immunosuppressants and ART mainly due to the influence of ritonavir on multiple enzymes. Simeprevir is also prone to drug interactions because of cytochrome P450(CYP) 3A4, CYP1A2, P-glycoprotein, and OATP1 involvement and is not recommended for use in combination with several HIV antiretrovirals (ARVs). Close therapeutic drug monitoring of calcineurin inhibitors is required with concomitant simeprevir. Few clinically significant interactions are expected with sofosbuvir or ledipasvir. Limited data suggest that daclatasvir may be coadministered with immunosuppressants but requires dose adjustments with certain ARVs.

CONCLUSIONS

None of the DAAs are completely free of drug interactions. Awareness and management of drug interactions is critical to optimize outcomes and minimize adverse effects in these patient populations.

Treatment of Recurrent Hepatitis C Genotype-4 Post-Liver Transplantation with Sofosbuvir plus Simeprevir

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection remains a leading indication for orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) worldwide. Recurrence of HCV following OLT is universal. There is scarcity of data on the post-OLT treatment of HCV genotype-4-the predominant genotype in North Africa and the Middle East. Herein, we present three patients who have experienced HCV genotype-4 recurrence post-OLT. All three patients were interferon-naive and were treated with simeprivir (SIM) and sofosbuvir (SOF) combination therapy for 12-24 weeks. The data from this case series show that SIM+SOF are well-tolerated and effective for achieving viral clearance in HCV genotype-4 post-OLT patients. Given the limited nature of a case series, further research must be pursued regarding post-OLT HCV genotype-4 responses to direct-acting anti-viral therapy.