Therapeutic potential of small interfering RNAs/micro interfering RNA in hepatocellular carcinoma

The Role of Small Interfering RNAs in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a primary liver cancer with high mortality, is the most common malignant tumor in the world. Currently, the effect of routine treatment is poor, especially for this kind of cancer with strong heterogeneity and late detection. In the past decades, the researches of gene therapy for HCC based on small interfering RNA have blossomed everywhere. This is a promising therapeutic strategy, but the application of siRNA is limited by the discovery of effective molecular targets and the delivery system targeting HCC. As the deepening of research, scientists have developed many effective delivery systems and found more new therapeutic targets.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper mainly reviews the research on HCC treatment based on siRNA in recent years, and summarizes and classifies the HCC treatment targets and siRNA delivery systems.

Genetic Factors and MicroRNAs in the Development of Gallbladder Cancer: The Prospective Clinical Targets

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is an uncommon condition in which malignant (cancer) cells are detected in gallbladder tissue. Cancer is often triggered when normal cells turn malignant and begin to spread. Cancer can also be caused by genetic anomalies that result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and tumor development. MicroRNAs (also known as miRNAs or miRs) are a group of small, endogenous, non-coding RNAs of 19-23 nucleotides in length, which play a key role in post-transcriptional gene regulation. These miRNAs serve as negative gene regulators by supervising target genes and regulating biological processes, including cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis. Cancer development and progression relate to aberrant miRNA expression. This review demonstrated the implication of various genetic factors and microRNAs in developing and regulating GBC. This suggests the potential of genes and RNAs as the diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic targets in gallbladder cancer.

Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Progression: From Classic to Novel Clinicopathogenetic Implications

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a predominant malignancy with increasing incidences and mortalities worldwide. In Western countries, the progressive affirmation of Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) as the main chronic liver disorder in which HCC occurrence is appreciable even in non-cirrhotic stages, constitutes a real health emergency. In light of this, a further comprehension of molecular pathways supporting HCC onset and progression represents a current research challenge to achieve more tailored prognostic models and appropriate therapeutic approaches. RNA non-coding transcripts (ncRNAs) are involved in the regulation of several cancer-related processes, including HCC. When dysregulated, these molecules, conventionally classified as "small ncRNAs" (sncRNAs) and "long ncRNAs" (lncRNAs) have been reported to markedly influence HCC-related progression mechanisms. In this review, we describe the main dysregulated ncRNAs and the relative molecular pathways involved in HCC progression, analyzing their implications in certain etiologically related contexts, and their applicability in clinical practice as novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic tools. Finally, given the growing evidence supporting the immune system response, the oxidative stress-regulated mechanisms, and the gut microbiota composition as relevant emerging elements mutually influencing liver-cancerogenesis processes, we investigate the relationship of ncRNAs with this triad, shedding light on novel pathogenetic frontiers of HCC progression.

Liver Cancer: New Insights into Surgical and Nonsurgical Treatments

Introduction:

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer that has increased in recent years worldwide. Primary liver cancer or HCC is considered the 5th and 7th most common cancer among men and women, respectively. It is also the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Unfortunately, HCC is frequently diagnosed at an advanced stage when the majority of the patients do not have access to remedial therapies. Furthermore, current systemic chemotherapy shows low efficacy and minimum survival benefits. Liver cancer therapy is a multidisciplinary, multiple-choice treatment based on the complex interaction of the tumour stage, the degree of liver disease, and the patient's general state of health.

Methods:

In this paper, we reviewed new insights into nonsurgical and surgical treatment of liver cancer in five English databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Google Scholar up to December 2019.

Results:

The results demonstrated, in addition to current therapies such as chemotherapy and surgical resection, new approaches, including immunotherapy, viral therapy, gene therapy, new ablation therapies, and adjuvant therapy, are widely used for the treatment of HCC. In recent years, biomaterials such as nanoparticles, liposomes, microspheres, and nanofibers are also regarded as reliable and innovative patents for the treatment and study of liver cancers.

Conclusion:

Multidisciplinary and multi-choice treatments and therapies are available for this liver cancer, while there are differences in liver cancer management recommendations among specialties and geographic areas. Current results have shown that treatment strategies have been combined with the advancement of novel treatment modalities. In addition, the use of new approaches with greater efficacy, such as combination therapy, biomaterials, ablation therapy, etc. can be considered the preferred treatment for patients.

miR-30c inhibits angiogenesis by targeting delta-like ligand 4 in liver sinusoidal endothelial cell to attenuate liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a common feature of liver dysfunction during chronic liver diseases and is frequently associated with angiogenesis, a dynamic process that forms new blood vessels from preexisting vasculature. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), which act as posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression, have been shown to regulate liver fibrosis; however, how miRNAs regulate angiogenesis and its mechanism in fibrosis are not well understood. We aimed to elucidate the role and mechanism of miR-30c in attenuating liver fibrosis. Using miRNA profiling of fibrotic murine livers, we identified differentially regulated miRNAs and discovered that miR-30c is aberrantly expressed and targets endothelial delta-like ligand 4 (DLL4) in either carbon tetrachloride-treated or bile duct ligated fibrotic mice, as well as in patients with liver fibrosis. Using CCK-8, wound healing and Matrigel tube formation assays, we found that miR-30c inhibited liver sinusoidal endothelial cell (LSEC) proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis capacity by targeting DLL4 in vitro. Importantly, nanoparticle-based delivery of miR-30c to LSECs inhibited the DLL4/Notch pathway and angiogenesis, thereby ameliorating liver fibrosis in vivo. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a protective role of miR-30c in liver fibrosis by regulating DLL4/Notch signaling and angiogenesis. Thus, miR-30c may serve as a potential treatment for chronic liver diseases.

Optimal scanning concentration of MR imaging for tumor-bearing nude mice with SPIO-shRNA molecular probe

The objective of this study is to investigate the signal changes and optimal scanning concentration of MRI in tumor tissues of tumor-bearing nude mice by SPIO-shRNA molecular probes. 30 BALB/c tumor-bearing nude mice were randomly divided into 5 groups with 6 mice in each group. At the given scanning time (before and 27 h after injection), the caudal vein was respectively injected with iron content of 6 mg·kg-1, 12 mg·kg-1, 18 mg·kg-1, 24 mg·kg-1, and 30 mg·kg-1, and MR examination was simultaneously performed to measure signal intensity changes of tumor tissue and contralateral muscle tissue in each concentration group. After each examination above, the nude mice were sacrificed immediately, and the tumor and muscle tissues were removed for HE and Prussian blue staining,and observed under light microscope. Nude mice in 6 mg, 12 mg and 18 mg groups all survived after probe injection, but some nude mice died in 24 mg and 30 mg groups after probe injection or during scanning. The signal changes of T2WI and T2*WI sequences were the most obvious in MR scanning sequences. Compared with other groups, the signal intensity of the tumor tissue in 18 mg, 24 mg and 30 mg groups were most obvious (P < 0.05), while the 18 mg, 24 mg and 30 mg groups reached no statistical difference (P > 0.05 ); HE staining indicated that structural disorder of tumor tissue as well as increase of nuclear atypia. Prussian Blue staining showed that blue-stained iron particles were present in each experimental group,and the most densely distributed were in 18 mg,24 mg and 30 mg groups. Tumor tissue could be well labeled with SPIO-shRNA molecular probes, and the optimal MR scanning concentration (iron content) is 18 mg·kg-1.

MicroRNAs Involved in Metastasis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Target Candidates, Functionality and Efficacy in Animal Models and Prognostic Relevance

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is responsible for the second-leading cancer-related death toll worldwide. Although sorafenib and levantinib as frontline therapy and regorafenib, cabazantinib and ramicurimab have now been approved for second-line therapy, the therapeutic benefit is in the range of only a few months with respect to prolongation of survival. Aggressiveness of HCC is mediated by metastasis. Intrahepatic metastases and distant metastasis to the lungs, lymph nodes, bones, omentum, adrenal gland and brain have been observed. Therefore, the identification of metastasis-related new targets and treatment modalities is of paramount importance. In this review, we focus on metastasis-related microRNAs (miRs) as therapeutic targets for HCC. We describe miRs which mediate or repress HCC metastasis in mouse xenograft models. We discuss 18 metastasis-promoting miRs and 35 metastasis-inhibiting miRs according to the criteria as outlined. Six of the metastasis-promoting miRs (miR-29a, -219-5p, -331-3p, 425-5p, -487a and -1247-3p) are associated with unfavourable clinical prognosis. Another set of six down-regulated miRs (miR-101, -129-3p, -137, -149, -503, and -630) correlate with a worse clinical prognosis. We discuss the corresponding metastasis-related targets as well as their potential as therapeutic modalities for treatment of HCC-related metastasis. A subset of up-regulated miRs -29a, -219-5p and -425-5p and down-regulated miRs -129-3p and -630 were evaluated in orthotopic metastasis-related models which are suitable to mimic HCC-related metastasis. Those miRNAs may represent prioritized targets emerging from our survey.

Liver Cancer: Current and Future Trends Using Biomaterials

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common type of cancer diagnosed and the second leading cause of death worldwide. Despite advancement in current treatments for HCC, the prognosis for this cancer is still unfavorable. This comprehensive review article focuses on all the current technology that applies biomaterials to treat and study liver cancer, thus showing the versatility of biomaterials to be used as smart tools in this complex pathologic scenario. Specifically, after introducing the liver anatomy and pathology by focusing on the available treatments for HCC, this review summarizes the current biomaterial-based approaches for systemic delivery and implantable tools for locally administrating bioactive factors and provides a comprehensive discussion of the specific therapies and targeting agents to efficiently deliver those factors. This review also highlights the novel application of biomaterials to study HCC, which includes hydrogels and scaffolds to tissue engineer 3D in vitro models representative of the tumor environment. Such models will serve to better understand the tumor biology and investigate new therapies for HCC. Special focus is given to innovative approaches, e.g., combined delivery therapies, and to alternative approaches-e.g., cell capture-as promising future trends in the application of biomaterials to treat HCC.

Strategies for Delivery of siRNAs to Ovarian Cancer Cells

The unmet need for novel therapeutic options for ovarian cancer (OC) deserves further investigation. Among the different novel drugs, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are particularly attractive because of their specificity of action and efficacy, as documented in many experimental setups. However, the fragility of these molecules in the biological environment necessitates the use of delivery materials able to protect them and possibly target them to the cancer cells. Among the different delivery materials, those based on polymers and lipids are considered very interesting because of their biocompatibility and ability to carry/deliver siRNAs. Despite these features, polymers and lipids need to be engineered to optimize their delivery properties for OC. In this review, we concentrated on the description of the therapeutic potential of siRNAs and polymer-/lipid-based delivery systems for OC. After a brief description of OC and siRNA features, we summarized the strategies employed to minimize siRNA delivery problems, the targeting strategies to OC, and the preclinical models available. Finally, we discussed the most interesting works published in the last three years about polymer-/lipid-based materials for siRNA delivery.

Delta-like ligand 4/DLL4 regulates the capillarization of liver sinusoidal endothelial cell and liver fibrogenesis

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) undergo capillarization, or loss of fenestrae, and produce basement membrane during liver fibrotic progression. DLL4, a ligand of the Notch signaling pathway, is predominantly expressed in endothelial cells and maintains liver sinusoidal homeostasis. The aim of this study was to explore the role of DLL4 in LSEC capillarization. The expression levels of DLL4 and the related genes, capillarization markers and basement membrane proteins were assessed by immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, RT-PCR and immunoblotting as appropriate. Fenestrae and basement membrane formation were examined by electron microscopy. We found DLL4 was up-regulated in the LSECs of human and CCl4-induced murine fibrotic liver, consistent with LSEC capillarization and liver fibrosis. Primary murine LSECs also underwent capillarization in vitro, with concomitant DLL4 overexpression. Bioinformatics analysis confirmed that DLL4 induced the production of basement membrane proteins in LSECs, which were also increased in the LSECs from 4 and 6-week CCl4-treated mice. DLL4 overexpression also increased the coverage of liver sinusoids by hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) through endothelin-1 (ET-1) synthesis. The hypoxic conditions that was instrumental in driving DLL4 overexpression in the LSECs. Consistent with the above findings, DLL4 silencing in vivo alleviated LSEC capillarization and CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. In conclusion, DLL4 mediates LSEC capillarization and the vicious circle between fibrosis and pathological sinusoidal remodeling.

Prospects of Noncoding RNAs in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a global health problem and one of the most common malignant tumors. Recent studies have shown that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) contribute to the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). These RNAs may be involved in a variety of pathological processes such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. In addition, abnormal expression of ncRNAs in HCC may provide potential prognostic or diagnostic biomarkers. This review provides an overview of the role and potential applications of ncRNAs, miRNAs, lncRNAs, circRNAs, and snoRNAs in liver cancer.

Polymer-Mediated Delivery of siRNAs to Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Variables Affecting Specificity and Effectiveness

Despite the advances in anticancer therapies, their effectiveness for many human tumors is still far from being optimal. Significant improvements in treatment efficacy can come from the enhancement of drug specificity. This goal may be achieved by combining the use of therapeutic molecules with tumor specific effects and delivery carriers with tumor targeting ability. In this regard, nucleic acid-based drug (NABD) and particularly small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), are attractive molecules due to the possibility to be engineered to target specific tumor genes. On the other hand, polymeric-based delivery systems are emerging as versatile carriers to generate tumor-targeted delivery systems. Here we will focus on the most recent findings in the selection of siRNA/polymeric targeted delivery systems for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a human tumor for which currently available therapeutic approaches are poorly effective. In addition, we will discuss the most attracting and, in our opinion, promising siRNA-polymer combinations for HCC in relation to the biological features of HCC tissue. Attention will be also put on the mathematical description of the mechanisms ruling siRNA-carrier delivery, this being an important aspect to improve effectiveness reducing the experimental work.

GTSF1 gene may serve as a novel potential diagnostic biomarker for liver cancer

The gametocyte-specific factor 1 (GTSF1) gene participates in DNA methylation and retrotransposon activation in germ cells, particularly during cell proliferation. The present study aimed to assess the level of GTSF1 gene expression in liver cancer tumor tissues, and its role in human hepatoma cell lines in vitro and in a nude mouse model in vivo. GTSF1 gene expression was detected in liver cancer tumor tissues, compared with in healthy controls, via reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. An adeno-associated virus vector was used to study tumor stem cell proliferation in vivo. A plasmid expressing GTSF1 was constructed and transfected into various human hepatoma cell lines, in order to analyze the cellular proliferation and apoptosis of liver cancer cells using small interfering (si)RNAs in vitro. In the present study, GTSF1 gene expression was detected in 18/24 (75.0%) liver cancer tumor tissues from patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and elevated GTSF1 expression was identified in the tissue of one of 32 healthy control samples (3.13%; P<0.05). Notably, the GTSF1 gene was expressed at a higher frequency in AFP-positive HCC samples (14/16, 87.50%) compared with in AFP-negative HCC samples (4/8, 50.0%; P=0.129). In addition, there was no statistical significance between GTSF1 expression in non-HBV-infected (71.42%) and HBV-infected HCC specimens (76.47%), as determined by a χ² test (P=0.921). It was demonstrated that GTSF1 significantly increased the tumorigenicity of Ad-shNC-transfected (GTSF1-positive) HepG2 cells in the nude mouse xenograft model, whereas the sizes and weights of the tumors in the GTSF1-negative group were dercreased in comparison with the GTSF1-positive group (P<0.05). Reduced levels of GTSF1 mRNA, along with fewer and smaller colonies, were identified in two groups of human liver cancer cells treated with with GTSF1-targeting siRNA, when compared with cells without GTSF1 mRNA interference (P<0.05). In summary, the present study elucidated the GTSF1 mRNA expression pattern in liver cancer, and investigated the potential role of GTSF1 in tumorigenesis. The data suggest an important role for the GTSF1 gene in the molecular etiology of hepatocarcinogenesis, and indicate a potential application of GTSF1 mRNA expression in liver cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Recent advances in smart biotechnology: Hydrogels and nanocarriers for tailored bioactive molecules depot

Over the past ten years, the global biopharmaceutical market has remarkably grown, with ten over the top twenty worldwide high performance medical treatment sales being biologics. Thus, biotech R&D (research and development) sector is becoming a key leading branch, with expanding revenues. Biotechnology offers considerable advantages compared to traditional therapeutic approaches, such as reducing side effects, specific treatments, higher patient compliance and therefore more effective treatments leading to lower healthcare costs. Within this sector, smart nanotechnology and colloidal self-assembling systems represent pivotal tools able to modulate the delivery of therapeutics. A comprehensive understanding of the processes involved in the self-assembly of the colloidal structures discussed therein is essential for the development of relevant biomedical applications. In this review we report the most promising and best performing platforms for specific classes of bioactive molecules and related target, spanning from siRNAs, gene/plasmids, proteins/growth factors, small synthetic therapeutics and bioimaging probes.

Dissecting the role of the elongation factor 1A isoforms in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by liposome-mediated delivery of siRNAs

Eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A), a protein involved in protein synthesis, has two major isoforms, eEF1A1 and eEF1A2. Despite the evidences of their involvement in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the quantitative contribution of each of the two isoforms to the disease is unknown. We depleted the two isoforms by means of siRNAs and studied the effects in three different HCC cell lines. Particular care was dedicated to select siRNAs able to target each of the two isoform without affecting the other one. This is not a trivial aspect due to the high sequence homology between eEF1A1 and eEF1A2. The selected siRNAs can specifically deplete either eEF1A1 or eEF1A2. This, in turn, results in an impairment of cell vitality, growth and arrest in the G1/G0 phase of the cell cycle. Notably, these effects are quantitatively superior following eEF1A1 than eEF1A2 depletion. Moreover, functional tests revealed that the G1/G0 block induced by eEF1A1 depletion depends on the down-regulation of the transcription factor E2F1, a known player in HCC. In conclusion, our data indicate that the independent targeting of the two eEF1A isoforms is effective in reducing HCC cell growth and that eEF1A1 depletion may result in a more evident effect.

Recent advances in hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), also called malignant hepatoma, is one of the deadliest cancers due to its complexities, reoccurrence after surgical resection, metastasis and heterogeneity. Incidence and mortality of HCC are increasing in Western countries and are expected to rise as a consequence of the obesity epidemic. Multiple factors trigger the initiation and progression of HCC including chronic alcohol consumption, viral hepatitis B and C infection, metabolic disorders and age. Although Sorafenib is the only FDA approved drug for the treatment of HCC, numerous treatment modalities such as transcatheter arterial chemoembolization/transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), radiotherapy, locoregional therapy and chemotherapy have been tested in the clinics. Polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, and micelles carrying small molecules, proteins, peptides and nucleic acids have attracted great attention for the treatment of various cancers including HCC. Herein, we discuss the pathogenesis of HCC in relation to its various recent treatment methodologies using nanodelivery of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), small molecules, miRNAs and peptides. Synopsis of recent clinical trials of mAbs and peptide drugs has been presented with a broad overview of the pathogenesis of the disease and treatment efficacy.

The role of microRNAs in gallbladder cancer

MicroRNAs (also referred to as miRNAs or miRs) play a crucial role in post-transcriptional gene regulation and serve as negative gene regulators by controlling a variety of target genes and regulating diverse biological processes, such as cell proliferation, invasion, migration and apoptosis. Aberrant expression of miRNAs is associated with the development and progression of cancer. Recent studies have reported that miRNAs may repress or promote the expression of cancer-related genes via several different signaling pathways in gallbladder cancer (GBC) patients and may function as tumor suppressors or oncogenes, thus providing a promising tool for the diagnosis and therapeutics of GBCs. In this review, we summarize the role of dysregulawted miRNA expression in the signaling pathways implicated in GBC and discuss the significant role of circulating miRNAs in GBC. Therefore, miRNAs may serve as novel therapeutic targets as well as diagnostic or prognostic markers in GBC.