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Wang C, Li B, Yao Y. Proactive Control Mediates the Relationship Between Working Memory and Math Ability in Early Childhood. Front Psychol 2021; 12:611429. [PMID: 34025497 PMCID: PMC8137833 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.611429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on the dual mechanisms of control (DMC) theory, there are two distinct mechanisms of cognitive control, proactive and reactive control. Importantly, accumulating evidence indicates that there is a developmental shift from predominantly using reactive control to proactive control during childhood, and the engagement of proactive control emerges as early as 5–7 years old. However, less is known about whether and how proactive control at this early age stage is associated with children’s other cognitive abilities such as working memory and math ability. To address this issue, the current study recruited 98 Chinese children under 5–7 years old. Among them, a total of 81 children (mean age = 6.29 years) contributed useable data for the assessments of cognitive control, working memory, and math ability. The results revealed that children at this age period predominantly employed a pattern of proactive control during an AX-Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT). Moreover, the proactive control index estimated by this task was positively associated with both working memory and math performance. Further regression analysis showed that proactive control accounted for significant additional variance in predicting math performance after controlling for working memory. Most interestingly, mediation analysis showed that proactive control significantly mediated the association between working memory and math performance. This suggests that as working memory increases so does proactive control, which may in turn improve math ability in early childhood. Our findings may have important implications for educational practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunjie Wang
- Institute of Brain Science and Department of Psychology, School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Baoming Li
- Institute of Brain Science and Department of Psychology, School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuan Yao
- Department of Psychology, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou, China
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2
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Fresnoza S, Christova M, Purgstaller S, Jehna M, Zaar K, Hoffermann M, Mahdy Ali K, Körner C, Gallasch E, von Campe G, Ischebeck A. Dissociating Arithmetic Operations in the Parietal Cortex Using 1 Hz Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: The Importance of Strategy Use. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:271. [PMID: 32765240 PMCID: PMC7378795 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The triple-code model (TCM) of number processing suggests the involvement of distinct parietal cortex areas in arithmetic operations: the bilateral horizontal segment of the intraparietal sulcus (hIPS) for arithmetic operations that require the manipulation of numerical quantities (e.g., subtraction) and the left angular gyrus (AG) for arithmetic operations that require the retrieval of answers from long-term memory (e.g., multiplication). Although neuropsychological, neuroimaging, and brain stimulation studies suggest the dissociation of these operations into distinct parietal cortex areas, the role of strategy (online calculation vs. retrieval) is not yet fully established. In the present study, we further explored the causal involvement of the left AG for multiplication and left hIPS for subtraction using a neuronavigated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) paradigm. Stimulation sites were determined based on an fMRI experiment using the same tasks. To account for the effect of strategy, participants were asked whether they used retrieval or calculation for each individual problem. We predicted that the stimulation of the left AG would selectively disrupt the retrieval of the solution to multiplication problems. On the other hand, stimulation of the left hIPS should selectively disrupt subtraction. Our results revealed that left AG stimulation was detrimental to the retrieval and online calculation of solutions for multiplication problems, as well as, the retrieval (but not online calculation) of the solutions to subtraction problems. In contrast, left hIPS stimulation had no detrimental effect on both operations regardless of strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane Fresnoza
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,BioTechMed, Graz, Austria
| | - Monica Christova
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Physiology Section, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Department of Physiotherapy, University of Applied Sciences FH-Joanneum Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Margit Jehna
- Department of Radiology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Karla Zaar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Markus Hoffermann
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Kariem Mahdy Ali
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Christof Körner
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,BioTechMed, Graz, Austria
| | - Eugen Gallasch
- BioTechMed, Graz, Austria.,Otto Loewi Research Center, Physiology Section, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Gord von Campe
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Anja Ischebeck
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,BioTechMed, Graz, Austria
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3
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Hofman AD, Visser I, Jansen BR, Marsman M, van der Maas HL. Fast and slow strategies in multiplication. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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4
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The Effect of Central Executive Load on Fourth and Sixth Graders' Use of Arithmetic Strategies. Psychol Belg 2017; 57:154-172. [PMID: 30479789 PMCID: PMC6194544 DOI: 10.5334/pb.360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we set out to investigate whether and how central executive load constrains the strategies that children use during arithmetic processing. Using a dual-task paradigm accompanied by the choice/no-choice method, we tested 233 children (115 6th graders, 118 4th graders). Results showed that the impact of central executive load on reaction times and accuracy scores related to strategy use increased with the magnitude of the demands of the central executive, with central executive load playing an important role in strategy use. Sixth graders performed better than 4th graders in the application of appropriate strategies. Children's adaptability with respect to strategy choice was affected by the type and magnitude of the central executive load; children showed better adaptability under the no-load condition and the inconsistent/low load condition than under conditions with greater load. Grade level affected children's adaptability with respect to strategy choice, with 6th graders exhibiting significantly better performance than 4th graders. These results confirm that the development of central executive skills contributes to children's overall strategy use and adaptability. These findings have important implications for understanding the category specificity of central executive working memory in arithmetic cognition and the mechanisms of strategy development in childhood.
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Mathieu R, Epinat-Duclos J, Sigovan M, Breton A, Cheylus A, Fayol M, Thevenot C, Prado J. What's Behind a “+” Sign? Perceiving an Arithmetic Operator Recruits Brain Circuits for Spatial Orienting. Cereb Cortex 2017; 28:1673-1684. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Romain Mathieu
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5304, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Lyon 1, Bron, France
- Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Education, Université de Genève, 1205 Genève, Switzerland
| | - Justine Epinat-Duclos
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5304, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Lyon 1, Bron, France
| | - Monica Sigovan
- Laboratoire CREATIS, Université Lyon 1, CNRS/INSERM, INSA-Lyon & HCL, Lyon, France
| | - Audrey Breton
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5304, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Lyon 1, Bron, France
| | - Anne Cheylus
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5304, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Lyon 1, Bron, France
| | - Michel Fayol
- Clermont II & CNRS, UFR de Psychologie, LAPSCO, Université Blaise Pascal,
63037 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Catherine Thevenot
- Institut de Psychologie, Université de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jérôme Prado
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5304, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Lyon 1, Bron, France
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van der Ven SH, Straatemeier M, Jansen BR, Klinkenberg S, van der Maas HL. Learning multiplication: An integrated analysis of the multiplication ability of primary school children and the difficulty of single digit and multidigit multiplication problems. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2015.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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7
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Tschentscher N, Hauk O. Individual strategy ratings improve the control for task difficulty effects in arithmetic problem solving paradigms. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1188. [PMID: 26321997 PMCID: PMC4534780 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mental arithmetic is a powerful paradigm to study problem solving using neuroimaging methods. However, the evaluation of task complexity varies significantly across neuroimaging studies. Most studies have parameterized task complexity by objective features such as the number size. Only a few studies used subjective rating procedures. In fMRI, we provided evidence that strategy self-reports control better for task complexity across arithmetic conditions than objective features (Tschentscher and Hauk, 2014). Here, we analyzed the relative predictive value of self-reported strategies and objective features for performance in addition and multiplication tasks, by using a paradigm designed for neuroimaging research. We found a superiority of strategy ratings as predictor of performance above objective features. In a Principal Component Analysis on reaction times, the first component explained over 90 percent of variance and factor loadings reflected percentages of self-reported strategies well. In multiple regression analyses on reaction times, self-reported strategies performed equally well or better than objective features, depending on the operation type. A Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis confirmed this result. Reaction times classified task complexity better when defined by individual ratings. This suggests that participants' strategy ratings are reliable predictors of arithmetic complexity and should be taken into account in neuroimaging research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Tschentscher
- Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Medical Research Council Cambridge, UK
| | - Olaf Hauk
- Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Medical Research Council Cambridge, UK
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Efficiency of Arithmetic Procedures Modulates the Problem-Size Effect in Subtraction. SPANISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 18:E41. [PMID: 26087759 DOI: 10.1017/sjp.2015.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine whether differences in strategy selection and/or strategy efficiency can explain the modulation of the problem-size effect by arithmetic skill. More specifically, we wondered whether arithmetic skill increases the use of retrieval strategy in large problems, and/or enhances the efficiency of either retrieval or procedural strategies. The performance of highly-skilled (HS) and less highly-skilled (LS) individuals on a subtraction verification task was analyzed according to problem size and to the strategy reported on a trial-by-trial basis after each problem. The problem size effect was larger for LS individuals than for their HS peers, both in response time and in hit rate. Nevertheless, groups did not differ regarding the strategy reported for each subtraction size. As expected, problems in which retrieval strategy was reported were solved more quickly and more accurately than problems solved by procedural strategies. Responses using retrieval strategy were equally fast in the two groups, but HS individuals performed better than LS when using procedural strategies. The results therefore suggest that the differences in behavioral measures between groups might specifically be due to differences in the efficiency of procedural strategies.
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Van Beek L, Ghesquièr P, De Smedt B, Lagae L. The arithmetic problem size effect in children: an event-related potential study. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:756. [PMID: 25309405 PMCID: PMC4174746 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study used for the first time event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine the well-known arithmetic problem size effect in children. The electrophysiological correlates of this problem size effect have been well documented in adults, but such information in children is lacking. In the present study, 22 typically developing 12-year-olds were asked to solve single-digit addition problems of small (sum ≤ 10) and large problem size (sum > 10) and to speak the solution into a voice key while ERPs were recorded. Children displayed similar early and late components compared to previous adult studies on the problem size effect. There was no effect of problem size on the early components P1, N1, and P2. The peak amplitude of the N2 component showed more negative potentials on left and right anterior electrodes for large additions compared to small additions, which might reflect differences in attentional and working memory resources between large and small problems. The mean amplitude of the late positivity component which follows the N2, was significantly larger for large than for small additions at right parieto-occipital electrodes, in line with previous adult data. The ERPs of the problem size effect during arithmetic might be a useful neural marker for future studies on fact retrieval impairments in children with mathematical difficulties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Van Beek
- Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
| | - Pol Ghesquièr
- Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
| | - Bert De Smedt
- Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
| | - Lieven Lagae
- Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
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Hubber PJ, Gilmore C, Cragg L. The roles of the central executive and visuospatial storage in mental arithmetic: a comparison across strategies. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2013; 67:936-54. [PMID: 24131334 PMCID: PMC4037843 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2013.838590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that working memory plays an important role in
arithmetic. Different arithmetical strategies rely on working memory to
different extents—for example, verbal working memory has been found to be more
important for procedural strategies, such as counting and decomposition, than
for retrieval strategies. Surprisingly, given the close connection between
spatial and mathematical skills, the role of visuospatial working memory has
received less attention and is poorly understood. This study used a dual-task
methodology to investigate the impact of a dynamic spatial n-back task
(Experiment 1) and tasks loading the visuospatial sketchpad and central
executive (Experiment 2) on adults’ use of counting, decomposition, and direct
retrieval strategies for addition. While Experiment 1 suggested that
visuospatial working memory plays an important role in arithmetic, especially
when counting, the results of Experiment 2 suggested this was primarily due to
the domain-general executive demands of the n-back task. Taken together, these
results suggest that maintaining visuospatial information in mind is required
when adults solve addition arithmetic problems by any strategy but the role of
domain-general executive resources is much greater than that of the visuospatial
sketchpad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula J Hubber
- a School of Psychology , University of Nottingham , Nottingham , UK
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11
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Spatial skills as a predictor of first grade girls' use of higher level arithmetic strategies. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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12
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Moeller K, Pixner S, Zuber J, Kaufmann L, Nuerk HC. Early place-value understanding as a precursor for later arithmetic performance--a longitudinal study on numerical development. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2011; 32:1837-1851. [PMID: 21498043 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2011.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2011] [Revised: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
It is assumed that basic numerical competencies are important building blocks for more complex arithmetic skills. The current study aimed at evaluating this interrelation in a longitudinal approach. It was investigated whether first graders' performance in basic numerical tasks in general as well as specific processes involved (e.g., place-value understanding) reliably predicted performance in an addition task in third grade. The results indicated that early place-value understanding was a reliable predictor for specific aspects of arithmetic performance. Implications of the role of basic numerical competencies for the acquisition of complex arithmetic are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Moeller
- Knowledge Media Research Center, Konrad-Adenauer-Str. 40, 72072 Tuebingen, Germany.
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13
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Núñez-Peña MI, Gracia-Bafalluy M, Tubau E. Individual differences in arithmetic skill reflected in event-related brain potentials. Int J Psychophysiol 2011; 80:143-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2010] [Revised: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Imbo I, Vandierendonck A. Instruction and load effects on high-skill and low-skill individuals: A study in the domain of mental arithmetic. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/09541440903150196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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15
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Metcalfe AWS, Campbell JID. Switch costs and the operand-recognition paradigm. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2010; 74:491-8. [PMID: 20054696 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-009-0272-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Experimental research in cognitive arithmetic frequently relies on participants' self-reports to discriminate solutions based on direct memory retrieval from use of procedural strategies. Given concerns about the validity and reliability of strategy reports, Thevenot et al. in Mem Cogn 35:1344-1352, (2007) developed the operand-recognition paradigm as an objective measure of arithmetic strategies. Participants performed addition or number comparison on two sequentially presented operands followed by a speeded operand-recognition task. Recognition times increased with problem size following addition but not comparison. Thevenot et al. argued that the complexity of addition strategies increases with problem size. A corresponding increase in operand-recognition time occurs because, as problem size increases, working memory contains more numerical distracters. However, because addition is substantially more difficult than comparison, and difficulty increases with problem size for addition but not comparison, their findings could be due to difficulty-related task-switching costs. We repeated Thevenot et al. (Experiment 1) but added a control condition wherein participants performed a parity (odd or even) task instead of operand recognition. We replicated their findings for operand recognition but found robust, albeit smaller, effects of addition problem size on parity judgements. The results indicate that effects of strategy complexity in the operand-recognition paradigm are confounded with task-switching effects, which complicates its application as a precise measure of strategy complexity in arithmetic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arron W S Metcalfe
- Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, 9 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A5, Canada.
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Imbo I, Vandierendonck A. Practice effects on strategy selection and strategy efficiency in simple mental arithmetic. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2007; 72:528-41. [PMID: 17906877 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-007-0128-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 08/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of practice on strategy selection and strategy efficiency in mental arithmetic. Participants had to solve simple addition or multiplication problems, after having received 0, 3, or 6 practice sessions (Experiment 1), and before and after having received 3 practice sessions (Experiment 2). Strategy selection was measured by means of trial-by-trial strategy reports, whereas strategy efficiency was measured by means of response latencies. Results showed significant practice effects on retrieval frequency, procedural frequency, retrieval efficiency, and procedural efficiency. However, practice effects on strategy efficiency appeared to be both strategy-specific (i.e., only for procedural strategies) and operation-specific (i.e., only for multiplication problems). Implications of the present results for mathematic cognition and its modeling are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ineke Imbo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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Imbo I, Vandierendonck A. Effects of problem size, operation, and working-memory span on simple-arithmetic strategies: differences between children and adults? PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2007; 72:331-46. [PMID: 17457605 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-007-0112-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2006] [Accepted: 02/20/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Adult's simple-arithmetic strategy use depends on problem-related characteristics, such as problem size and operation, and on individual-difference variables, such as working-memory span. The current study investigates (a) whether the effects of problem size, operation, and working-memory span on children's simple-arithmetic strategy use are equal to those observed in adults, and (b) how these effects emerge and change across age. To this end, simple-arithmetic performance measures and a working-memory span measure were obtained from 8-year-old, 10-year-old, and 12-year-old children. Results showed that the problem-size effect in children results from the same strategic performance differences as in adults (i.e., size-related differences in strategy selection, retrieval efficiency, and procedural efficiency). Operation-related effects in children were equal to those observed in adults as well, with more frequent retrieval use on multiplication, more efficient strategy execution in addition, and more pronounced changes in multiplication. Finally, the advantage of having a large working-memory span was also present in children. The differences and similarities across children's and adult's strategic performance and the relevance of arithmetic models are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ineke Imbo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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