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Zhang X, Guo Y, Jiang Y, Yuan Y. Judgments of learning reactively affect memory by inducing covert retrieval. THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024:1-29. [PMID: 39340430 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.2024.2409785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024]
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) can directly influence memory, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect of JOLs. However, controversy surrounds the mechanism behind JOL reactivity. This study employs related and unrelated word pairs as learning materials to compare memory outcomes across different JOL conditions. We contrasted the traditional JOL reactivity paradigm with a covert retrieval induction paradigm to explore whether JOLs impact memory through covert retrieval. In Experiment 1, data from 40 participants (18 females, 22 males) were analyzed, revealed distinct patterns between the two paradigms. When word pairs are presented entirely, the JOL group outperforms the no-JOL group in memorizing related pairs, aligning with traditional JOL reactivity. Conversely, when target words are omitted, the JOL group's memory resembles that of the no-JOL group. This comparison suggested that JOLs may prompt covert retrieval. In Experiment 2, which involved manipulating the retrieval strength, data from 52 participants (46 females, 6 males) were analyzed, yielded results consistent with those of Experiment 1. We conclude that covert retrieval significantly contributes to the JOL reactivity effect, enhancing memory through JOL-induced covert retrieval.
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Li B, Pastötter B, Zhong Y, Su N, Huang T, Zhao W, Hu X, Luo L, Yang C. Judgments of Learning Reactively Improve Memory by Enhancing Learning Engagement and Inducing Elaborative Processing: Evidence from an EEG Study. J Intell 2024; 12:44. [PMID: 38667711 PMCID: PMC11050784 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence12040044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) can reactively alter memory itself, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect. The current study recorded electroencephalography (EEG) signals during the encoding phase of a word list learning task to explore the neurocognitive features associated with JOL reactivity. The behavioral results show that making JOLs reactively enhances recognition performance. The EEG results reveal that, compared with not making JOLs, making JOLs increases P200 and LPC amplitudes and decreases alpha and beta power. Additionally, the signals of event-related potentials (ERPs) and event-related desynchronizations (ERDs) partially mediate the reactivity effect. These findings support the enhanced learning engagement theory and the elaborative processing explanation to account for the JOL reactivity effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baike Li
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China;
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Bernhard Pastötter
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, D-54296 Trier, Germany;
| | - Yongen Zhong
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ningxin Su
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ting Huang
- School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Wenbo Zhao
- School of Social Development and Public Policy, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China;
| | - Xiao Hu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Liang Luo
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chunliang Yang
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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Maxwell NP, Cates EE, Huff MJ. Item-specific and relational encoding are effective at reducing the illusion of competence. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:1023-1044. [PMID: 37926731 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01891-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Metamemory, or the ability to understand the capacities of one's own memory, is important for learning. To investigate questions surrounding metamemory, researchers commonly have participants make judgments of learning (JOLs) at encoding, in which participants rate their likelihood of recalling the target in a cue-target word pair when shown only the cue at test. However, the associative direction of cue-target pairs can affect the calibration of JOLs. Unlike forward associates (e.g., credit-card), in which JOLs often accurately predict recall, an illusion of competence has been reported for backward associates (e.g., card-credit), symmetrical associates (e.g., salt-pepper), and unrelated cue-target pairs (e.g., artery-bronze) such that JOLs overestimate later recall. The present study evaluates whether the illusion of competence can be reduced when participants apply deep item-specific or relational encoding tasks relative to silent reading. Across two experiments, we show that both item-specific and relational encoding strategies reduce the illusion of competence for backward associates and unrelated pairs while improving the calibration between JOLs and recall. Our findings suggest that these encoding strategies are effective at reducing the illusion of competence, with increased calibration primarily reflecting improved recall. Thus, item-specific and relational encoding strategies primarily affect retrieval processes rather than metacognitive processes that participants engage in at encoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P Maxwell
- School of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5025, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Emily E Cates
- School of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5025, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Mark J Huff
- School of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5025, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA.
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Chang M, Brainerd C. Judgments of Learning Reactivity on Item-Specific and Relational Processing. J Intell 2024; 12:4. [PMID: 38248902 PMCID: PMC10817339 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence12010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Judgments of learning (JOLs) reactivity refers to the finding that the mere solicitation of JOLs modifies subsequent memory performance. One theoretical explanation is the item-specific processing hypothesis, which posits that item-level JOLs redound to the benefit of later memory performance because they enhance item-specific processing. The current study was designed to test this account. We factorially manipulated the organization (blocked vs. randomized) of categorized lists and JOL condition (item-JOLs, list-JOLs, no-JOLs) between participants, and fit the dual-retrieval model to free recall data to pinpoint the underlying memory processes that were affected by JOL solicitation. Our results showed that item-level JOLs produced positive reactivity for randomized but not for blocked categorized lists. Moreover, we found that the positive JOL reactivity for randomized categorized lists was tied to a familiarity judgment process that is associated with gist processing, rather than to item-specific recollective processes. Thus, our results pose a challenge to the item-specific processing explanation of JOL reactivity. We argue that JOL reactivity is not restricted to item-specific processing; instead, whether JOLs predominantly engage participants with item-specific or relational processing depends on the interaction between learning stimuli and JOLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minyu Chang
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Charles Brainerd
- Department of Psychology and Human Neuroscience Institute, Cornell University, G331 MVR Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Rivers ML, Dunlosky J, Janes JL, Witherby AE, Tauber SK. Judgments of learning enhance recall for category-cued but not letter-cued items. Mem Cognit 2023; 51:1547-1561. [PMID: 37173589 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01417-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Making immediate judgments of learning (JOLs) during study can influence later memory performance, with a common outcome being that JOLs improve cued-recall performance for related word pairs (i.e., positive reactivity) and do not impact memory for unrelated pairs (i.e., no reactivity). The cue-strengthening hypothesis proposes that JOL reactivity will be observed when a criterion test is sensitive to the cues used to inform JOLs (Soderstrom et al., Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41 (2), 553-558, 2015). Across four experiments, we evaluated this hypothesis with category pairs (e.g., A type of gem - Jade) and letter pairs (e.g., Ja - Jade). Participants studied a list comprised of both pair types, made (or did not make) JOLs, and completed a cued-recall test (Experiments 1a/b). The cue-strengthening hypothesis predicts greater positive reactivity for category pairs than for letter pairs, because making a JOL strengthens the relationship between the cue and target, which is more beneficial for material with an a priori semantic relationship. Outcomes were consistent with this hypothesis. We also evaluated and ruled out alternative explanations for this pattern of effects: (a) that they arose due to overall differences in recall performance for the two pair types (Experiment 2); (b) that they would also occur even when the criterion test is not sensitive to the cues used to inform JOLs (Experiment 3); and (c) that JOLs only increased memory strength for the targets (Experiment 4). Thus, the current experiments rule out plausible accounts of reactivity effects and provide further, converging evidence for the cue-strengthening hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Rivers
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box #298920, 2800 S. University Dr, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA.
- Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA.
| | - John Dunlosky
- Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Jessica L Janes
- Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Amber E Witherby
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box #298920, 2800 S. University Dr, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA
- Department of Psychology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Sarah K Tauber
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box #298920, 2800 S. University Dr, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA
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Rivers ML, Janes JL, Dunlosky J, Witherby AE, Tauber SK. Exploring the Role of Attentional Reorienting in the Reactive Effects of Judgments of Learning on Memory Performance. J Intell 2023; 11:164. [PMID: 37623547 PMCID: PMC10455363 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11080164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying related word pairs can enhance performance on tests that rely on cue-target associations (e.g., cued recall) compared to studying alone. One possible explanation for this positive JOL reactivity effect is that the prompt to make JOLs, which typically occurs halfway through the presentation of each pair, may encourage learners to devote more attention to the pair during the second half of the encoding episode, which may contribute to enhanced recall performance. To investigate this idea, an online sample of participants (Experiment 1) and undergraduate students (Experiment 2) studied a set of moderately related word pairs (e.g., dairy-cow) in preparation for a cued recall test. Some participants made JOLs for each pair halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants did not. Also, some participants were presented with a fixation point halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants were not. The goal of this fixation point was to simulate the possible "reorienting" effect of a JOL prompt halfway through each encoding episode. In both an unsupervised online context and a supervised laboratory context, cued recall performance was higher for participants who made JOLs compared to those who did not make JOLs. However, presenting a fixation point halfway through the presentation of each pair did not lead to reactive effects on memory. Thus, JOLs are more effective than a manipulation that reoriented participants to the word pairs in another way (i.e., via a fixation point), which provides some initial evidence that positive reactivity for related pairs is not solely driven by attentional reorienting during encoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L. Rivers
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76109, USA
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - Jessica L. Janes
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - John Dunlosky
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - Amber E. Witherby
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Sarah K. Tauber
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76109, USA
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Witherby AE, Babineau AL, Tauber SK. Does Interactive Imagery Influence the Reactive Effect of Judgments of Learning on Memory? J Intell 2023; 11:139. [PMID: 37504782 PMCID: PMC10382038 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11070139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying is a useful tool for students to evaluate the status of their learning. Additionally, in associative learning contexts, JOLs can directly benefit learning when the to-be-learned information is related. One explanation for this reactive effect is that making JOLs strengthens the associative relationship, leading to enhanced memory performance when a test relies on that relationship (e.g., cued-recall tests). In the present research, we evaluated whether having students make interactive mental images-another strategy that can increase the strength of a cue-target relationship-impacts the reactive effect of JOLs on learning. Students studied word pairs that were related and unrelated. Half of the students were instructed to form a mental image of the words interacting, whereas the other half were not. Additionally, in each group half of the students made a JOL for each pair, whereas half did not. Following a short delay, students completed a cued-recall test. Consistent with prior research, students who made JOLs remembered more related word pairs than did students who did not. By contrast, students who made JOLs recalled fewer unrelated word pairs than did students who did not. Moreover, although students who formed interactive images demonstrated enhanced memory relative to students who did not, interactive imagery did not impact the reactive effect of JOLs. These outcomes are informative for existing theory of JOL reactivity. Specifically, JOLs may only benefit learning of associative information when it has a pre-existing semantic relationship (e.g., related word pairs) and not when that that relationship is created by the learner (e.g., by forming interactive images).
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber E Witherby
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Addison L Babineau
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA
| | - Sarah K Tauber
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA
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Maxwell NP, Huff MJ. Reactivity from judgments of learning is not only due to memory forecasting: evidence from associative memory and frequency judgments. METACOGNITION AND LEARNING 2022; 17:589-625. [PMID: 35505852 PMCID: PMC9051498 DOI: 10.1007/s11409-022-09301-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Research has shown that judgments of learning (JOLs) often produce a reactive effect on the learning of cue-target pairs in which target recall differs between participants who provide item-based JOLs at study versus those who do not. Positive reactivity, or the memory improvement found when JOLs are provided, is typically observed on related pairs, while no reactivity is commonly found on unrelated pairs. In four experiments, we examined JOL reactivity effects by comparing JOL and no-JOL groups to other groups who engaged in relational-type encoding/judgment tasks. Experiment 1 replicated positive JOL reactivity effects with related pairs with an extension to symmetrically related pairs. Next, Experiment 2 found that providing judgments of associative memory-a task that does not involve memory predictions-yielded equivalent reactivity patterns as JOLs. Experiment 3 replicated this reactivity pattern using a frequency of co-occurrence judgment task. Finally, In Experiment 4, a similar positive reactivity pattern was found using a relational encoding task when compared to a standard JOL. Collectively, our results suggest that previous JOL reactivity patterns are not solely due to memory forecasting processes via JOLs and likely reflect relational encoding that is strategically applied towards related, but not unrelated pairs. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11409-022-09301-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P. Maxwell
- The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 USA
| | - Mark J. Huff
- The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 USA
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Rivers ML, Janes JL, Dunlosky J. Investigating memory reactivity with a within-participant manipulation of judgments of learning: support for the cue-strengthening hypothesis. Memory 2021; 29:1342-1353. [PMID: 34635008 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1985143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
When learners make judgments of learning (JOLs) for some word pairs but not others, how and why is recall performance affected? Participants studied related and unrelated word pairs and made JOLs for a randomly selected half of the pairs. We evaluated two hypotheses. The changed-goal hypothesis states that making JOLs leads learners to notice differences in pair difficulty and to change their learning goal. Because JOLs are manipulated within participants, such a goal change should influence how all (judged or non-judged) pairs are processed on the list, which should lead to no JOL reactivity. The cue-strengthening hypothesis predicts greater positive reactivity (i.e., higher recall for judged versus non-judged pairs) for related than unrelated pairs, because making a JOL strengthens the relationship between the two words in a pair, which would be more beneficial for pairs with an a priori relationship. Across experiments, we found positive reactivity for both related and unrelated pairs (albeit to a lesser degree for the latter). We also found no evidence that learners make qualitative changes in their reported strategy use when judging pairs. Making JOLs for some pairs on a list influenced memory performance and the pattern of reactivity provided support for the cue-strengthening hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Rivers
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Jessica L Janes
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - John Dunlosky
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
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