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Muukkonen I, Kilpeläinen M, Turkkila R, Saarela T, Salmela V. Obligatory integration of face features in expression discrimination. VISUAL COGNITION 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2022.2046222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. Muukkonen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - M. Kilpeläinen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - R. Turkkila
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - T. Saarela
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - V. Salmela
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Liu Y, Bi T, Kuang Q, Zhang B, Wu H, Li H, Zhang B, Zhao J, Ning Y, She S, Zheng Y. Cortical Pathways or Mechanism in the Face Inversion Effect in Patients with First-Episode Schizophrenia. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2021; 17:1893-1906. [PMID: 34140773 PMCID: PMC8203188 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s302584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Impaired face perception is considered as a hallmark of social disability in schizophrenia. It is widely believed that inverted faces and upright faces are processed by distinct mechanisms. Previous studies have identified that individuals with schizophrenia display poorer face processing than controls. However, the mechanisms underlying the face inversion effect (FIE) in patients with first-episode schizophrenia (FSZ) remain unclear. METHODS We designed an fMRI task to investigate the FIE mechanism in patients with schizophrenia. Thirty-four patients with FSZ and thirty-five healthy controls (CON) underwent task-related fMRI scanning, clinical assessment, anhedonia experience examination, and social function and cognitive function evaluation. RESULTS The patients with FSZ exhibited distinct functional activity regarding upright and inverted face processing within the cortical face and non-face network. These results suggest that the differences in quantitative processing might mediate the FIE in schizophrenia. Compared with controls, affected patients showed impairments in processing both upright and inverted faces; and for these patients with FSZ, upright face processing was associated with more severe and broader impairment than inverted face processing. Reduced response in the left middle occipital gyrus for upright face processing was related to poorer performance of social function outcomes evaluated using the Personal and Social Performance Scale. CONCLUSION Our data suggested that patients with FSZ exhibited similar performance in processing inverted faces and upright faces, but were less efficient than controls; and for these patients, inverted faces are processed less efficiently than upright faces. We also provided a clue that the mechanism under abnormal FIE might be related to an aberrant activation of non-face-selective areas instead of abnormal activation of face-specific areas in patients with schizophrenia. Finally, our study indicated that the neural pathway for upright recognition might be relevant in determining the functional outcomes of this devastating disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Taiyong Bi
- Centre for Mental Health Research in School of Management, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, 563000, People's Republic of China
| | - Qijie Kuang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Bei Zhang
- General and Experimental Psychology, Department of Psychology, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Huawang Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Haijing Li
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Jingping Zhao
- Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University; Chinese National Clinical Research Center on Mental Disorders; Chinese National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders; Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuping Ning
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Shenglin She
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingjun Zheng
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510370, People's Republic of China
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Kang DW, Wang SM, Na HR, Park SY, Kim NY, Lee CU, Kim D, Son SJ, Lim HK. Differences in cortical structure between cognitively normal East Asian and Caucasian older adults: a surface-based morphometry study. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20905. [PMID: 33262399 PMCID: PMC7708477 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77848-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing literature on the impact of ethnicity on brain structure and function. Despite the regional heterogeneity in age-related changes and non-uniformity across brain morphometry measurements in the aging process, paucity of studies investigated the difference in cortical anatomy between the East Asian and Caucasian older adults. The present study aimed to compare cortical anatomy measurements, including cortical thickness, volume and surface area, between cognitively normal East Asian (n = 171) and Caucasian (n = 178) older adults, using surface-based morphometry and vertex-wise group analysis of high-dimensional structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. The East Asian group showed greater cortical thickness and larger cortical volume in the right superior temporal gyrus, postcentral gyrus, bilateral inferior temporal gyrus, and inferior parietal cortex. The Caucasian group showed thicker and larger cortex in the left transverse temporal cortex, lingual gyrus, right lateral occipital cortex, and precentral gyrus. Additionally, the difference in surface area was discordant with that in cortical thickness. Differences in brain structure between the East Asian and Caucasian might reflect differences in language and information processing, but further studies using standardized methods for assessing racial characteristics are needed. The research results represent a further step towards developing a comprehensive understanding of differences in brain structure between ethnicities of older adults, and this would enrich clinical research on aging and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Woo Kang
- Department of Psychiatry, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sheng-Min Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yeouido St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Ran Na
- Department of Psychiatry, Yeouido St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sonya Youngju Park
- Department of Radiology, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Nak Young Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Yeouido St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Uk Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | - Hyun Kook Lim
- Department of Psychiatry, Yeouido St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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Logan AJ, Gordon GE, Loffler G. From individual features to full faces: Combining aspects of face information. J Vis 2019; 19:23. [PMID: 31009945 DOI: 10.1167/19.4.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated how information from face features is combined by comparing sensitivity to individual features with that for external (head shape, hairline) and internal (nose, mouth, eyes, eyebrows) feature compounds. Discrimination thresholds were measured for synthetic faces under the following conditions: (a) full-faces; (b) individual features (e.g., nose); and (c) feature compounds (either external or internal). Individual features and feature compounds were presented both in isolation and embedded within a fixed, task irrelevant face context. Relative to the full-face baseline, threshold elevations for the internal feature compound (2.41x) were comparable to those for the most sensitive individual feature (nose = 2.12x). External features demonstrated the same pattern. A model that incorporated all available feature information within a single channel in an efficient way overestimated sensitivity to feature compounds. Embedding individual features within a task-irrelevant context reduced discrimination sensitivity, relative to isolated presentation. Sensitivity to feature compounds, however, was unaffected by embedding. A loss of sensitivity when embedding features within a fixed-face context is consistent with holistic processing, which limits access to information about individual features. However, holistic combination of information across face features is not efficient: Sensitivity to feature compounds is no better than sensitivity to the best individual feature. No effect of embedding internal feature compounds within task-irrelevant external face features (or vice versa) suggests that external and internal features are processed independently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Logan
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK.,Department of Vision Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK
| | - Gael E Gordon
- Department of Vision Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK
| | - Gunter Loffler
- Department of Vision Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK
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Pinna B, Deiana K. When the whole is equal to the sum of its parts: A new approach to study face and body perception and representation. Vision Res 2019; 157:252-263. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2018.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Ölander K, Muukkonen I, Saarela TP, Salmela VR. Integration of facial features under memory load. Sci Rep 2019; 9:892. [PMID: 30696943 PMCID: PMC6351552 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37596-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple visual items and complex real-world objects are stored into visual working memory as a collection of independent features, not as whole or integrated objects. Storing faces into memory might differ, however, since previous studies have reported perceptual and memory advantage for whole faces compared to other objects. We investigated whether facial features can be integrated in a statistically optimal fashion and whether memory maintenance disrupts this integration. The observers adjusted a probe – either a whole face or isolated features (eyes or mouth region) – to match the identity of a target while viewing both stimuli simultaneously or after a 1.5 second retention period. Precision was better for the whole face compared to the isolated features. Perceptual precision was higher than memory precision, as expected, and memory precision further declined as the number of memorized items was increased from one to four. Interestingly, the whole-face precision was better predicted by models assuming injection of memory noise followed by integration of features than by models assuming integration of features followed by the memory noise. The results suggest equally weighted or optimal integration of facial features and indicate that feature information is preserved in visual working memory while remembering faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ölander
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - I Muukkonen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - T P Saarela
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - V R Salmela
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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Royer J, Blais C, Charbonneau I, Déry K, Tardif J, Duchaine B, Gosselin F, Fiset D. Greater reliance on the eye region predicts better face recognition ability. Cognition 2018; 181:12-20. [PMID: 30103033 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Interest in using individual differences in face recognition ability to better understand the perceptual and cognitive mechanisms supporting face processing has grown substantially in recent years. The goal of this study was to determine how varying levels of face recognition ability are linked to changes in visual information extraction strategies in an identity recognition task. To address this question, fifty participants completed six tasks measuring face and object processing abilities. Using the Bubbles method (Gosselin & Schyns, 2001), we also measured each individual's use of visual information in face recognition. At the group level, our results replicate previous findings demonstrating the importance of the eye region for face identification. More importantly, we show that face processing ability is related to a systematic increase in the use of the eye area, especially the left eye from the observer's perspective. Indeed, our results suggest that the use of this region accounts for approximately 20% of the variance in face processing ability. These results support the idea that individual differences in face processing are at least partially related to the perceptual extraction strategy used during face identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Royer
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Caroline Blais
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Isabelle Charbonneau
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Karine Déry
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Jessica Tardif
- Département de Psychologie, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Brad Duchaine
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, United States
| | | | - Daniel Fiset
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada.
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Collins E, Robinson AK, Behrmann M. Distinct neural processes for the perception of familiar versus unfamiliar faces along the visual hierarchy revealed by EEG. Neuroimage 2018; 181:120-131. [PMID: 29966716 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans recognize faces with ease, despite the complexity of the task and of the visual system which underlies it. Different spatial regions, including both the core and extended face processing networks, and distinct temporal stages of processing have been implicated in face recognition, but there is ongoing controversy regarding the extent to which the mechanisms for recognizing a familiar face differ from those for an unfamiliar face. Here, we used electroencephalogram (EEG) and flicker SSVEP, a high signal-to-noise approach, and searchlight decoding methods to elucidate the mechanisms mediating the processing of familiar and unfamiliar faces in the time domain. Familiar and unfamiliar faces were presented periodically at 15 Hz, 6 Hz and 3.75 Hz either upright or inverted in separate blocks, with the rationale that faster frequencies require shorter processing times per image and tap into fundamentally different levels of visual processing. The 15 Hz trials, likely to reflect early visual processing, exhibited enhanced neural responses for familiar over unfamiliar face trials, but only when the faces were upright. In contrast, decoding methods revealed similar classification accuracies for upright and inverted faces for both familiar and unfamiliar faces. For the 6 Hz frequency, familiar faces had lower amplitude responses than unfamiliar faces, and decoding familiarity was more accurate for upright compared with inverted faces. Finally, the 3.75 Hz frequency revealed no main effects of familiarity, but decoding showed significant correlations with behavioral ratings of face familiarity, suggesting that activity evoked by this slow presentation frequency reflected higher-level, cognitive aspects of familiarity processing. This three-way dissociation between frequencies reveals that fundamentally different stages of the visual hierarchy are modulated by face familiarity. The combination of experimental and analytical approaches used here represent a novel method for elucidating spatio-temporal characteristics within the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot Collins
- Department of Psychology and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, USA; School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA.
| | - Amanda K Robinson
- Department of Psychology and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, USA; School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Australia
| | - Marlene Behrmann
- Department of Psychology and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
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Tang Y, Zhao L, Lou Y, Shi Y, Fang R, Lin X, Liu S, Toga A. Brain structure differences between Chinese and Caucasian cohorts: A comprehensive morphometry study. Hum Brain Mapp 2018; 39:2147-2155. [PMID: 29400417 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous behavioral observations and brain function studies have demonstrated that neurological differences exist between East Asians and Westerners. However, the extent to which these factors relate to differences in brain structure is still not clear. As the basis of brain functions, the anatomical differences in brain structure play a primary and critical role in the origination of functional and behavior differences. To investigate the underlying differences in brain structure between the two cultural/ethnic groups, we conducted a comparative study on education-matched right-handed young male adults (age = 22-29 years) from two cohorts, Han Chinese (n = 45) and Caucasians (n = 45), using high-dimensional structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. Using two well-validated imaging analysis techniques, surface-based morphometry (SBM) and voxel-based morphometry (VBM), we performed a comprehensive vertex-wise morphometric analysis of the brain structures between Chinese and Caucasian cohorts. We identified consistent significant between-group differences in cortical thickness, volume, and surface area in the frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, and insular lobes as well as the cingulate cortices. The SBM analyses revealed that compared with Caucasians, the Chinese population showed larger cortical structures in the temporal and cingulate regions, and smaller structural measures in the frontal and parietal cortices. The VBM data of the same sample was well-aligned with the SBM findings. Our findings systematically revealed comprehensive brain structural differences between young male Chinese and Caucasians, and provided new neuroanatomical insights to the behavioral and functional distinctions in the two cultural/ethnic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchun Tang
- Research Center for Sectional and Imaging Anatomy, Shandong University Cheeloo College of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China.,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China.,Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, 90032
| | - Lu Zhao
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, 90032
| | - Yunxia Lou
- Research Center for Sectional and Imaging Anatomy, Shandong University Cheeloo College of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China.,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China
| | - Yonggang Shi
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, 90032
| | - Rui Fang
- Research Center for Sectional and Imaging Anatomy, Shandong University Cheeloo College of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China
| | - Xiangtao Lin
- Research Center for Sectional and Imaging Anatomy, Shandong University Cheeloo College of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China.,Shandong Medical Imaging Research Institute, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Shuwei Liu
- Research Center for Sectional and Imaging Anatomy, Shandong University Cheeloo College of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China.,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China
| | - Arthur Toga
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI), Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, 90032
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Abstract
Holistic processing is often used as a construct to characterize face recognition. An important recent study by Gold, Mundy, and Tjan (2012) quantified holistic processing by computing a facial-feature integration index derived from an ideal observer model. This index was mathematically defined as the ratio of the psychophysical contrast sensitivities squared for recognizing a whole face versus the sum of contrast sensitivities squared for individual face parts (left eye, right eye, nose, and mouth). They observed that this index was not significantly different from 1, leading to the provocative conclusion that the perception of a face is no more than the sum of its parts. What may not be obvious to all readers of this work is that these conclusions were based on a collection of faces that shared essentially the same configuration of face parts. We tested whether the facial-feature integration index would also equal 1 when faces have a range of configurations mirroring the range of variability in real-world faces, using the same experimental procedure and calculating the same integration index as Gold et al. When tested on faces with the same configuration, we also observed an integration index similar to what Gold et al. reported. But when tested on faces with variable configurations, we observed an integration index significantly greater than 1. Combing our results with those of Gold et al. further clarifies the theoretical construct of holistic processing in face recognition and what it means for the whole to be greater than the sum of its parts.
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Fitousi D. Comparing the role of selective and divided attention in the composite face effect: Insights from Attention Operating Characteristic (AOC) plots and cross-contingency correlations. Cognition 2015; 148:34-46. [PMID: 26722710 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2015.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Composite faces combine the top half of one face with the bottom half of another to create a compelling illusion of a new face. Evidence for holistic processing with composite faces comes primarily from a matching procedure in a selective attention task. In the present study, a dual-task approach has been employed to study whether composite faces reflect genuine holistic (i.e., fusion of parts) or non-holistic processing strategies (i.e., switching, resource sharing). This has been accomplished by applying the Attention Operation Characteristic methodology (AOC, Sperling & Melchner, 1978a, 1978b) and cross-contingency correlations (Bonnel & Prinzmetal, 1998) to composite faces. Overall, the results converged on the following conclusions: (a) observers can voluntarily allocate differential amounts of attention to the top and bottom parts in both spatially aligned and misaligned composite faces, (b) the interaction between composite face halves is due to attentional limitations, not due to switching or fusion strategies, and (c) the processing of aligned and misaligned composite faces is quantitatively and qualitatively similar. Taken together, these results challenge the holistic interpretation of the composite face illusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Fitousi
- Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.
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