Tunable magnetism on the lateral mesoscale by post-processing of Co/Pt heterostructures

Ligand Size and Carbon-Chain Length Study of Silver Carboxylates in Focused Electron-Beam-Induced Deposition

Gas-assisted focused electron-beam-induced deposition is a versatile tool for the direct writing of complex-shaped nanostructures with unprecedented shape fidelity and resolution. While the technique is well-established for various materials, the direct electron beam writing of silver is still in its infancy. Here, we examine and compare five different silver carboxylates, three perfluorinated: [Ag₂(µ-O₂CCF₃)₂], [Ag₂(µ-O₂CC₂F₅)₂], and [Ag₂(µ-O₂CC₃F₇)₂], and two containing branched substituents: [Ag₂(µ-O₂CCMe₂Et)₂] and [Ag₂(µ-O₂C^tBu)₂], as potential precursors for focused electron-beam-induced deposition. All of the compounds show high sensitivity to electron dissociation and efficient dissociation of Ag-O bonds. The as-deposited materials have silver contents from 42 at.% to above 70 at.% and are composed of silver nano-crystals with impurities of carbon and fluorine between them. Precursors with the shortest carbon-fluorine chain ligands yield the highest silver contents. In addition, the deposited silver content depends on the balance of electron-induced ligand co-deposition and ligand desorption. For all of the tested compounds, low electron flux was related to high silver content. Our findings demonstrate that silver carboxylates constitute a promising group of precursors for gas-assisted focused electron beam writing of high silver content materials.

Site-Selective Chemical Vapor Deposition on Direct-Write 3D Nanoarchitectures

Recent advancements in additive manufacturing have enabled the preparation of free-shaped 3D objects with feature sizes down to and below the micrometer scale. Among the fabrication methods, focused electron beam- and focused ion beam-induced deposition (FEBID and FIBID, respectively) associate a high flexibility and unmatched accuracy in 3D writing with a wide material portfolio, thereby allowing for the growth of metallic to insulating materials. The combination of the free-shaped 3D nanowriting with established chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques provides attractive opportunities to synthesize complex 3D core-shell heterostructures. Hence, this hybrid approach enables the fabrication of morphologically tunable layer-based nanostructures with the great potential of unlocking further functionalities. Here, the fundamentals of such a hybrid approach are demonstrated by preparing core-shell heterostructures using 3D FEBID scaffolds for site-selective CVD. In particular, 3D microbridges are printed by FEBID with the (CH₃)₃CH₃C₅H₄Pt precursor and coated by thermal CVD using the Nb(NMe₂)₃(N-t-Bu) and HFeCo₃(CO)₁₂ precursors. Two model systems on the basis of CVD layers consisting of a superconducting NbC-based layer and a ferromagnetic Co₃Fe layer are prepared and characterized with regard to their composition, microstructure, and magneto-transport properties.

New Dimension in Magnetism and Superconductivity: 3D and Curvilinear Nanoarchitectures

Traditionally, the primary field, where curvature has been at the heart of research, is the theory of general relativity. In recent studies, however, the impact of curvilinear geometry enters various disciplines, ranging from solid-state physics over soft-matter physics, chemistry, and biology to mathematics, giving rise to a plethora of emerging domains such as curvilinear nematics, curvilinear studies of cell biology, curvilinear semiconductors, superfluidity, optics, 2D van der Waals materials, plasmonics, magnetism, and superconductivity. Here, the state of the art is summarized and prospects for future research in curvilinear solid-state systems exhibiting such fundamental cooperative phenomena as ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and superconductivity are outlined. Highlighting the recent developments and current challenges in theory, fabrication, and characterization of curvilinear micro- and nanostructures, special attention is paid to perspective research directions entailing new physics and to their strong application potential. Overall, the perspective is aimed at crossing the boundaries between the magnetism and superconductivity communities and drawing attention to the conceptual aspects of how extension of structures into the third dimension and curvilinear geometry can modify existing and aid launching novel functionalities. In addition, the perspective should stimulate the development and dissemination of research and development oriented techniques to facilitate rapid transitions from laboratory demonstrations to industry-ready prototypes and eventual products.

Granular Hall Sensors for Scanning Probe Microscopy

Scanning Hall probe microscopy is attractive for minimally invasive characterization of magnetic thin films and nanostructures by measurement of the emanating magnetic stray field. Established sensor probes operating at room temperature employ highly miniaturized spin-valve elements or semimetals, such as Bi. As the sensor layer structures are fabricated by patterning of planar thin films, their adaption to custom-made sensor probe geometries is highly challenging or impossible. Here we show how nanogranular ferromagnetic Hall devices fabricated by the direct-write method of focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) can be tailor-made for any given probe geometry. Furthermore, we demonstrate how the magnetic stray field sensitivity can be optimized in situ directly after direct-write nanofabrication of the sensor element. First proof-of-principle results on the use of this novel scanning Hall sensor are shown.

Spin-wave spectroscopy of individual ferromagnetic nanodisks

The increasing demand for nanoscale magnetic devices requires development of 3D magnetic nanostructures. In this regard, focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a technique of choice for direct-writing of complex nano-architectures with applications in nanomagnetism, magnon spintronics, and superconducting electronics. However, intrinsic properties of nanomagnets are often poorly known and can hardly be assessed by local optical probe techniques. Here, an original spatially resolved approach is demonstrated for spin-wave spectroscopy of individual circular magnetic elements with sample volumes down to about 10-3 μm3. The key component of the setup is a coplanar waveguide whose microsized central part is placed over a movable substrate with well-separated CoFe-FEBID nanodisks which exhibit standing spin-wave resonances. The circular symmetry of the disks allows for the deduction of the saturation magnetization and the exchange stiffness of the material using an analytical theory. A good correspondence between the results of analytical calculations and micromagnetic simulations is revealed, indicating a validity of the used analytical model going beyond the initial thin-disk approximation used in the theoretical derivation. The presented approach is especially valuable for the characterization of direct-write magnetic elements opening new horizons for 3D nanomagnetism and magnonics.

Writing 3D Nanomagnets Using Focused Electron Beams

Focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a direct-write nanofabrication technique able to pattern three-dimensional magnetic nanostructures at resolutions comparable to the characteristic magnetic length scales. FEBID is thus a powerful tool for 3D nanomagnetism which enables unique fundamental studies involving complex 3D geometries, as well as nano-prototyping and specialized applications compatible with low throughputs. In this focused review, we discuss recent developments of this technique for applications in 3D nanomagnetism, namely the substantial progress on FEBID computational methods, and new routes followed to tune the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic FEBID materials. We also review a selection of recent works involving FEBID 3D nanostructures in areas such as scanning probe microscopy sensing, magnetic frustration phenomena, curvilinear magnetism, magnonics and fluxonics, offering a wide perspective of the important role FEBID is likely to have in the coming years in the study of new phenomena involving 3D magnetic nanostructures.

Ultra-fast vortex motion in a direct-write Nb-C superconductor

The ultra-fast dynamics of superconducting vortices harbors rich physics generic to nonequilibrium collective systems. The phenomenon of flux-flow instability (FFI), however, prevents its exploration and sets practical limits for the use of vortices in various applications. To suppress the FFI, a superconductor should exhibit a rarely achieved combination of properties: weak volume pinning, close-to-depairing critical current, and fast heat removal from heated electrons. Here, we demonstrate experimentally ultra-fast vortex motion at velocities of 10-15 km s-1 in a directly written Nb-C superconductor with a close-to-perfect edge barrier. The spatial evolution of the FFI is described using the edge-controlled FFI model, implying a chain of FFI nucleation points along the sample edge and their development into self-organized Josephson-like junctions (vortex rivers). In addition, our results offer insights into the applicability of widely used FFI models and suggest Nb-C to be a good candidate material for fast single-photon detectors.

Spin-Wave Phase Inverter upon a Single Nanodefect

Local modification of magnetic properties of nanoelements is a key to design future-generation magnonic devices in which information is carried and processed via spin waves. One of the biggest challenges here is to fabricate simple and miniature phase-controlling elements with broad tunability. Here, we successfully realize such spin-wave phase shifters upon a single nanogroove milled by a focused ion beam in a Co-Fe microsized magnonic waveguide. By varying the groove depth and the in-plane bias magnetic field, we continuously tune the spin-wave phase and experimentally evidence a complete phase inversion. The microscopic mechanism of the phase shift is based on the combined action of the nanogroove as a geometrical defect and the lower spin-wave group velocity in the waveguide under the groove where the magnetization is reduced due to the incorporation of Ga ions during the ion-beam milling. The proposed phase shifter can easily be on-chip integrated with spin-wave logic gates and other magnonic devices. Our findings are crucial for designing nanomagnonic circuits and for the development of spin-wave nano-optics.

Electron interactions with the heteronuclear carbonyl precursor H2FeRu3(CO)13 and comparison with HFeCo3(CO)12: from fundamental gas phase and surface science studies to focused electron beam induced deposition

In the current contribution we present a comprehensive study on the heteronuclear carbonyl complex H2FeRu3(CO)13 covering its low energy electron induced fragmentation in the gas phase through dissociative electron attachment (DEA) and dissociative ionization (DI), its decomposition when adsorbed on a surface under controlled ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions and exposed to irradiation with 500 eV electrons, and its performance in focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) at room temperature under HV conditions. The performance of this precursor in FEBID is poor, resulting in maximum metal content of 26 atom % under optimized conditions. Furthermore, the Ru/Fe ratio in the FEBID deposit (≈3.5) is higher than the 3:1 ratio predicted. This is somewhat surprising as in recent FEBID studies on a structurally similar bimetallic precursor, HFeCo3(CO)12, metal contents of about 80 atom % is achievable on a routine basis and the deposits are found to maintain the initial Co/Fe ratio. Low temperature (≈213 K) surface science studies on thin films of H2FeRu3(CO)13 demonstrate that electron stimulated decomposition leads to significant CO desorption (average of 8-9 CO groups per molecule) to form partially decarbonylated intermediates. However, once formed these intermediates are largely unaffected by either further electron irradiation or annealing to room temperature, with a predicted metal content similar to what is observed in FEBID. Furthermore, gas phase experiments indicate formation of Fe(CO)4 from H2FeRu3(CO)13 upon low energy electron interaction. This fragment could desorb at room temperature under high vacuum conditions, which may explain the slight increase in the Ru/Fe ratio of deposits in FEBID. With the combination of gas phase experiments, surface science studies and actual FEBID experiments, we can offer new insights into the low energy electron induced decomposition of this precursor and how this is reflected in the relatively poor performance of H2FeRu3(CO)13 as compared to the structurally similar HFeCo3(CO)12.

The rational design of a Au(I) precursor for focused electron beam induced deposition

Au(I) complexes are studied as precursors for focused electron beam induced processing (FEBIP). FEBIP is an advanced direct-write technique for nanometer-scale chemical synthesis. The stability and volatility of the complexes are characterized to design an improved precursor for pure Au deposition. Aurophilic interactions are found to play a key role. The short lifetime of ClAuCO in vacuum is explained by strong, destabilizing Au-Au interactions in the solid phase. While aurophilic interactions do not affect the stability of ClAuPMe₃, they leave the complex non-volatile. Comparison of crystal structures of ClAuPMe₃ and MeAuPMe₃ shows that Au-Au interactions are much weaker or partially even absent for the latter structure. This explains its high volatility. However, MeAuPMe₃ dissociates unfavorably during FEBIP, making it an unsuitable precursor. The study shows that Me groups reduce aurophilic interactions, compared to Cl groups, which we attribute to electronic rather than steric effects. Therefore we propose MeAuCO as a potential FEBIP precursor. It is expected to have weak Au-Au interactions, making it volatile. It is stable enough to act as a volatile source for Au deposition, being stabilized by 6.5 kcal/mol. Finally, MeAuCO is likely to dissociate in a single step to pure Au.

Annealing-Based Electrical Tuning of Cobalt-Carbon Deposits Grown by Focused-Electron-Beam-Induced Deposition

An effective postgrowth electrical tuning, via an oxygen releasing method, to enhance the content of non-noble metals in deposits directly written with gas-assisted focused-electron-beam-induced deposition (FEBID) is presented. It represents a novel and reproducible method for improving the electrical transport properties of Co-C deposits. The metal content and electrical properties of Co-C-O nanodeposits obtained by electron-induced dissociation of volatile Co₂(CO)₈ precursor adsorbate molecules were reproducibly tuned by applying postgrowth annealing processes at 100 °C, 200 °C, and 300 °C under high-vacuum for 10 min. Advanced thin film EDX analysis showed that during the annealing process predominantly oxygen is released from the Co-C-O deposits, yielding an atomic ratio of Co:C:O = 100:16:1 (85:14:1) with respect to the atomic composition of as-written Co:C:O = 100:21:28 (67:14:19). In-depth Raman analysis suggests that the amorphous carbon contained in the as-written deposit turns into graphite nanocrystals with size of about 22.4 nm with annealing temperature. Remarkably, these microstructural changes allow for tuning of the electrical resistivity of the deposits over 3 orders of magnitude from 26 mΩ cm down to 26 μΩ cm, achieving a residual resistivity of ρ_2K/ρ_300 K = 0.56, close to the value of 0.53 for pure Co films with similar dimensions, making it especially interesting and advantageous over the numerous works already published for applications such as advanced scanning-probe systems, magnetic memory, storage, and ferroelectric tunnel junction memristors, as the graphitic matrix protects the cobalt from being oxidized under an ambient atmosphere.

On the magnetic properties of iron nanostructures fabricated via focused electron beam induced deposition and autocatalytic growth processes

We employ Electron beam induced deposition (EBID) in combination with autocatalytic growth (AG) processes to fabricate magnetic nanostructures with controllable shapes and thicknesses. Following this route, different Fe deposits were prepared on silicon nitride membranes under ultra-high vacuum conditions and studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and scanning transmission x-ray microspectroscopy (STXM). The originally deposited Fe nanostructures are composed of pure iron, especially when fabricated via autocatalytic growth processes. Quantitative near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy was employed to derive information on the thickness dependent composition. X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) in STXM was used to derive the magnetic properties of the EBID prepared structures. STXM and XMCD analysis evinces the existence of a thin iron oxide layer at the deposit-vacuum interface, which is formed during exposure to ambient conditions. We were able to extract magnetic hysteresis loops for individual deposits from XMCD micrographs with varying external magnetic field. Within the investigated thickness range (2-16 nm), the magnetic coercivity, as evaluated from the width of the hysteresis loops, increases with deposit thickness and reaches a maximum value of ∼160 Oe at around 10 nm. In summary, we present a viable technique to fabricate ferromagnetic nanostructures in a controllable way and gain detailed insight into their chemical and magnetic properties.

Three-dimensional core-shell ferromagnetic nanowires grown by focused electron beam induced deposition

Functional nanostructured materials often rely on the combination of more than one material to confer the desired functionality or an enhanced performance of the device. Here we report the procedure to create nanoscale heterostructured materials in the form of core-shell nanowires by focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) technologies. In our case, three-dimensional (3D) nanowires (<100 nm in diameter) with metallic ferromagnetic cores of Co- and Fe-FEBID have been grown and coated with a protective Pt-FEBID shell (ranging 10-20 nm in thickness) aimed to minimize the degradation of magnetic properties caused by the surface oxidation of the core to a non-ferromagnetic material. The structure, chemistry and magnetism of nanowire cores of Co and Fe have been characterized in Pt-coated and uncoated nanostructures to demonstrate that the morphology of the shell is conserved during Pt coating, the surface oxidation is suppressed or confined to the Pt layer, and the average magnetization of the core is strengthened up to 30%. The proposed approach paves the way to the fabrication of 3D FEBID nanostructures based on the smart alternate deposition of two or more materials combining different physical properties or added functionalities.

Electron Induced Surface Reactions of cis-Pt(CO)2Cl2: A Route to Focused Electron Beam Induced Deposition of Pure Pt Nanostructures

Using mechanistic data from surface science studies on electron-induced reactions of organometallic precursors, cis-Pt(CO)2Cl2 (1) was designed specifically for use in focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) of Pt nanostructures. Electron induced decomposition of adsorbed 1 under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions proceeds through initial CO loss as determined by in situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Although the Pt-Cl bonds remain intact during the initial decomposition step, larger electron doses induce removal of the residual chloride through an electron-stimulated desorption process. FEBID structures created from cis-Pt(CO)2Cl2 under steady state deposition conditions in an Auger spectrometer were determined to be PtCl2, free of carbon and oxygen. Coupled with the electron stimulated removal of chlorine demonstrated in the UHV experiments, the Auger deposition data establish a route to FEBID of pure Pt. Results from this study demonstrate that structure-activity relationships can be used to design new precursors specifically for FEBID.

Additive fabrication of nanostructures with focused soft X-rays

In a novel approach a high-resolution soft X-ray microscope has been applied to generate metallic nanostructures by X-ray beam induced decomposition of precursor molecules supplied from the gas phase.