1
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Cihan E, Dietzel D, Jany BR, Schirmeisen A. Effect of Amorphous-Crystalline Phase Transition on Superlubric Sliding. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 130:126205. [PMID: 37027841 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.130.126205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Structural superlubricity describes the state of greatly reduced friction between incommensurate atomically flat surfaces. Theory predicts that, in the superlubric state, the remaining friction sensitively depends on the exact structural configuration. In particular the friction of amorphous and crystalline structures for, otherwise, identical interfaces should be markedly different. Here, we measure friction of antimony nanoparticles on graphite as a function of temperature between 300 and 750 K. We observe a characteristic change of friction when passing the amorphous-crystalline phase transition above 420 K, which shows irreversibility upon cooling. The friction data is modeled with a combination of an area scaling law and a Prandtl-Tomlinson type temperature activation. We find that the characteristic scaling factor γ, which is a fingerprint of the structural state of the interface, is reduced by 20% when passing the phase transition. This validates the concept that structural superlubricity is determined by the effectiveness of atomic force canceling processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebru Cihan
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Institute for Materials Science and Max Bergmann Center for Biomaterials, TU Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Dirk Dietzel
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Center for Materials Research, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Benedykt R Jany
- Marian Smoluchowski Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 30348 Krakow, Poland
| | - André Schirmeisen
- Institute of Applied Physics, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Center for Materials Research, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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2
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Yamada Y, Ichii T, Utsunomiya T, Kimura K, Kobayashi K, Yamada H, Sugimura H. Fundamental and higher eigenmodes of qPlus sensors with a long probe for vertical-lateral bimodal atomic force microscopy. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2023; 5:840-850. [PMID: 36756504 PMCID: PMC9890686 DOI: 10.1039/d2na00686c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The detection of vertical and lateral forces at the nanoscale by atomic force microscopy (AFM) reveals various mechanical properties on surfaces. The qPlus sensor is a widely used force sensor, which is built from a quartz tuning fork (QTF) and a sharpened metal probe, capable of high-resolution imaging in viscous liquids such as lubricant oils. Although a simultaneous detection technique of vertical and lateral forces by using a qPlus sensor is required in the field of nanotribology, it has still been difficult because the torsional oscillations of QTFs cannot be detected. In this paper, we propose a method to simultaneously detect vertical and lateral force components by using a qPlus sensor with a long probe. The first three eigenmodes of the qPlus sensor with a long probe are theoretically studied by solving a set of equations of motion for the QTF prong and probe. The calculation results were in good agreement with the experimental results. It was found that the tip oscillates laterally in the second and third modes. Finally, we performed friction anisotropy measurements on a polymer film by using a bimodal AFM utilizing the qPlus sensor with a long probe to confirm the lateral force detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuya Yamada
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Takashi Ichii
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Toru Utsunomiya
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Kuniko Kimura
- Department of Electronic Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
| | - Kei Kobayashi
- Department of Electronic Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
| | - Hirofumi Yamada
- Department of Electronic Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Sugimura
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Kyoto University Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
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3
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Acikgoz O, Guerrero E, Yanilmaz A, Dagdeviren OE, Çelebi C, Strubbe DA, Baykara MZ. Intercalation leads to inverse layer dependence of friction on chemically doped MoS 2. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 34:015706. [PMID: 36130587 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac9393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We present results of atomic-force-microscopy-based friction measurements on Re-doped molybdenum disulfide (MoS2). In stark contrast to the widespread observation of decreasing friction with increasing number of layers on two-dimensional (2D) materials, friction on Re-doped MoS2exhibits an anomalous, i.e. inverse, dependence on the number of layers. Raman spectroscopy measurements combined withab initiocalculations reveal signatures of Re intercalation. Calculations suggest an increase in out-of-plane stiffness that inversely correlates with the number of layers as the physical mechanism behind this remarkable observation, revealing a distinctive regime of puckering for 2D materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ogulcan Acikgoz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, United States of America
- Microelectronics Guidance and Electro-Optics Division, Aselsan Inc., Ankara 06750, Turkey
| | - Enrique Guerrero
- Department of Physics, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, United States of America
| | - Alper Yanilmaz
- Department of Physics, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | - Omur E Dagdeviren
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de technologie supérieure, University of Quebec, Quebec H3C 1K3, Canada
| | - Cem Çelebi
- Department of Physics, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | - David A Strubbe
- Department of Physics, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, United States of America
| | - Mehmet Z Baykara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, United States of America
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4
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Nolin A, Pierson K, Hlibok R, Lo CY, Kayser LV, Dhong C. Controlling fine touch sensations with polymer tacticity and crystallinity. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:3928-3940. [PMID: 35546489 PMCID: PMC9302477 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm00264g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The friction generated between a finger and an object forms the mechanical stimuli behind fine touch perception. To control friction, and therefore tactile perception, current haptic devices typically rely on physical features like bumps or pins, but chemical and microscale morphology of surfaces could be harnessed to recreate a wider variety of tactile sensations. Here, we sought to develop a new way to create tactile sensations by relying on differences in microstructure as quantified by the degree of crystallinity in polymer films. To isolate crystallinity, we used polystyrene films with the same chemical formula and number averaged molecular weights, but which differed in tacticity and annealing conditions. These films were also sufficiently thin as to be rigid which minimized effects from bulk stiffness and had variations in roughness lower than detectable by humans. To connect crystallinity to human perception, we performed mechanical testing with a mock finger to form predictions about the degree of crystallinity necessary to result in successful discrimination by human subjects. Psychophysical testing verified that humans could discriminate surfaces which differed only in the degree of crystallinity. Although related, human performance was not strongly correlated with a straightforward difference in the degree of crystallinity. Rather, human performance was better explained by quantifying transitions in steady to unsteady sliding and the generation of slow frictional waves (r2 = 79.6%). Tuning fine touch with polymer crystallinity may lead to better engineering of existing haptic interfaces or lead to new classes of actuators based on changes in microstructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Nolin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
| | - Kelly Pierson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
| | - Rainer Hlibok
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
| | - Chun-Yuan Lo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Laure V Kayser
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Charles Dhong
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
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5
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Gianetti MM, Guerra R, Vanossi A, Urbakh M, Manini N. Thermal Friction Enhancement in Zwitterionic Monolayers. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2022; 126:2797-2805. [PMID: 35178140 PMCID: PMC8842320 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.1c09542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a model for zwitterionic monolayers and investigate its tribological response to changes in applied load, sliding velocity, and temperature by means of molecular-dynamics simulations. The proposed model exhibits different regimes of motion depending on temperature and sliding velocity. We find a remarkable increase of friction with temperature, which we attribute to the formation and rupture of transient bonds between individual molecules of opposite sliding layers, triggered by the out-of-plane thermal fluctuations of the molecules' orientations. To highlight the effect of the molecular charges, we compare these results with analogous simulations for the charge-free system. These findings are expected to be relevant to nanoscale rheology and tribology experiments of locally-charged lubricated systems such as, e.g., experiments performed on zwitterionic monolayers, phospholipid micelles, or confined polymeric brushes in a surface force apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa M. Gianetti
- Dipartimento
di Fisica, Università degli Studi
di Milano, Via Celoria 16, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Roberto Guerra
- Center
for Complexity and Biosystems, Department of Physics, University of Milan, via Celoria 16, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Andrea Vanossi
- CNR-IOM,
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto Officina dei Materiali, c/o SISSA, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
- International
School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Michael Urbakh
- Department
of Physical Chemistry, School of Chemistry, The Raymond and Beverly
Sackler Faculty of Exact Sciences and The Sackler Center for Computational
Molecular and Materials Science, Tel Aviv
University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Nicola Manini
- Dipartimento
di Fisica, Università degli Studi
di Milano, Via Celoria 16, Milano 20133, Italy
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6
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Brazil O, Pethica JB, Pharr GM. The contribution of plastic sink-in to the static friction of single asperity microscopic contacts. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2021.0502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We report microscale friction experiments for diamond/metal and diamond/silica contacts under gigapascal contact pressures. Using a new nanoprobe technique that has a sufficient dynamic range of force and stiffness, we demonstrate the processes involved in the transition from purely interface sliding at the nanoscale to the situation where at least one of the sliding bodies undergoes some plastic deformation. For sliding of micrometre-sized tips on metallic substrates, additional local plastic yielding of the substrate resulting from tangential tractions causes the tip to sink into the surface, increasing the contact area in the direction of loading and resulting in a static friction coefficient higher than the kinetic during ploughing. This sink-in is largely absent in fused silica, and no friction drop is observed, along with lower friction in general. The transition from sink-in within the static friction regime to ploughing in the sliding friction regime is mediated by failure of the contact interface, indicated by a sharp increase in energy dissipation. At lower contact pressures, the elastic interfacial sliding behaviour characteristic of scanning probe or surface force apparatus experiments is recovered, bridging the gap between the exotic realm of nanotribology and plasticity-dominated macroscale friction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen Brazil
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA
| | - John B. Pethica
- School of Physics, CRANN and AMBER, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - George M. Pharr
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA
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7
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Mandelli D, Guerra R. Friction of physisorbed nanotubes: rolling or sliding? NANOSCALE 2020; 12:13046-13054. [PMID: 32538390 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr01016b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The structure and motion of carbon and h-BN nanotubes (NTs) deposited on graphene is inquired theoretically by simulations based on state-of-the-art interatomic force fields. Results show that any typical cylinder-over-surface approximation is essentially inaccurate. NTs tend to flatten at the interface with the substrate and upon driving they can either roll or slide depending on their size and on their relative orientation with the substrate. In the epitaxially aligned orientation we find that rolling is always the main mechanism of motion, producing a kinetic friction linearly growing with the number of walls, in turn causing an unprecedented supra-linear scaling with the contact area. A 30 degrees misalignment raises superlubric effects, making sliding favorable against rolling. The resulting rolling-to-sliding transition in misaligned NTs is explained in terms of the faceting appearing in large multi-wall tubes, which is responsible for the increased rotational stiffness. Modifying the geometrical conditions provides an additional means of drastically tailoring the frictional properties in this unique tribological system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Mandelli
- Atomistic Simulations, Italian Institute of Technology, via Morego 30, Genova 16163, Italy
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8
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Song Y, Qu C, Ma M, Zheng Q. Structural Superlubricity Based on Crystalline Materials. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e1903018. [PMID: 31670482 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201903018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Herein, structural superlubricity, a fascinating phenomenon where the friction is ultralow due to the lateral interaction cancellation resulted from incommensurate contact crystalline surfaces, is reviewed. Various kinds of nano- and microscale materials such as 2D materials, metals, and compounds are used for the fabrication. For homogeneous frictional pairs, superlow friction forces exist in most relative orientations with incommensurate configuration. Heterojunctions bear no resemblance to homogeneous contact, since the lattice constants are naturally mismatched which leads to a robust structural superlubricity with any orientation of the two different surfaces. A discussion on the perspectives of this field is also provided to meet the existing challenges and chart the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Song
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Center for Nano and Micro Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Cangyu Qu
- Department of Engineering Mechanics, Center for Nano and Micro Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Ming Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Center for Nano and Micro Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Quanshui Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Center for Nano and Micro Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
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9
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Craciun AD, Donnio B, Gallani JL, Rastei MV. High-resolution manipulation of gold nanorods with an atomic force microscope. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 31:085302. [PMID: 31683263 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab5404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The controlled manipulation and precise positioning of nanoparticles on surfaces is a critical requisite for studying interparticle interactions in various research fields including spintronics, plasmonics, and nanomagnetism. We present here a method where an atomic force microscope operating in vacuum is used to accurately rotate and displace CTAB-coated gold nanorods on silica surfaces. The method relies on operating an AFM in a bimodal way which includes both dynamic and contact modes. Moreover, the phase of the oscillating probe is used to monitor the nanoparticle trajectory, which amplitude variations are employed to evaluate the energy dissipation during manipulation. The nanoscale displacement modes involve nanorod in-plane rotation and sliding, but no rolling events. The transitions between these displacement modes depend on the angle between the scan axis direction and the nanorod long axis. The findings reveal the importance of mean tip-substrate distance and of oscillation amplitude of the tip. The role of substrate surface and of CTAB molecular bi-layer at nanorod surface is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Craciun
- Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, F-67034 Strasbourg, France
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10
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Abstract
Structural lubricity is an intriguing tribological concept, where extremely low friction is anticipated, if two surfaces in relative motion do not share the same lattice structure and consequently instabilities originating from interlocking surface potentials are strongly reduced. Currently, the challenges related to the phenomenon of structural lubricity are considered to be twofold. On one hand, experimental systems suitable for showing structural lubricity must be identified, while at the same time, it is also crucial to understand the intricate details of interface interaction. Here, we introduce a new material combination, namely NaCl-particles on highly oriented pyrolithic graphite (HOPG), where the nanoparticles coalesce under the influence of ambient humidity. Our experiments reveal that the interfacial friction can be described by the concept of structural lubricity despite the seemingly unavoidable contamination of the interface. By systematically analyzing the friction versus area scaling, this unlikely candidate for structural lubricity then shows two separate friction branches, with distinct differences of the friction versus area scaling. The exact tribological behavior of the nanoparticles can ultimately be understood by a model that considers the influence of nanoparticle preparation on the interface conditions. By taking into account an inevitable water layer at the interface between particle and substrate that can exist in different crystalline configurations all friction phenomena observed in the experiments can be understood.
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11
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Gigli L, Kawai S, Guerra R, Manini N, Pawlak R, Feng X, Müllen K, Ruffieux P, Fasel R, Tosatti E, Meyer E, Vanossi A. Detachment Dynamics of Graphene Nanoribbons on Gold. ACS NANO 2019; 13:689-697. [PMID: 30525461 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b07894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Metal-surface physisorbed graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) constitute mobile nanocontacts whose interest is simultaneously mechanical, electronic, and tribological. Previous work showed that GNRs adsorbed on Au(111) generally slide smoothly and superlubrically owing to the incommensurability of their structures. We address here the nanomechanics of detachment, as realized when one end is picked up and lifted by an AFM cantilever. AFM nanomanipulations and molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations identify two successive regimes, characterized by (i) a progressively increasing local bending, accompanied by the smooth sliding of the adhered part, followed by (ii) a stick-slip dynamics involving sudden bending relaxation associated with intermittent jumps of the remaining adhered GNR segment and tail end. AFM measurements of the vertical force exhibit oscillations which, compared with MD simulations, can be associated with the successive detachment of individual GNR unit cells of length 0.42 nm. Extra modulations within one single period are caused by steplike advancements of the still-physisorbed part of the GNR. The sliding of the incommensurate moiré pattern that accompanies the GNR lifting generally yields an additional long-period oscillation: while almost undetectable when the GNR is aligned in the standard "R30" orientation on Au(111), we predict that such feature should become prominent in the alternative rotated "R0" orientation on the same surface, or on a different surface, such as perhaps Ag(111).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Gigli
- International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) , Via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
| | - Shigeki Kawai
- International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics , National Institute for Materials Science , 1-1, Namiki , Tsukuba , Ibaraki 305-0044 , Japan
| | - Roberto Guerra
- Dipartimento di Fisica , Università degli Studi di Milano , Via Celoria 16 , 20133 Milano , Italy
- Center for Complexity and Biosystems , University of Milan , 20133 Milan , Italy
| | - Nicola Manini
- Dipartimento di Fisica , Università degli Studi di Milano , Via Celoria 16 , 20133 Milano , Italy
| | - Rémy Pawlak
- Department of Physics , University of Basel , Klingelbergstr. 82 , CH-4056 Basel , Switzerland
| | - Xinliang Feng
- Department of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (CFAED) , Technische Universität Dresden , 01062 Dresden , Germany
| | - Klaus Müllen
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research , 55124 Mainz , Germany
| | - Pascal Ruffieux
- nanotech@surfaces Laboratory , Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Überlandstrasse 129 , 8600 Dübendorf , Switzerland
| | - Roman Fasel
- nanotech@surfaces Laboratory , Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Überlandstrasse 129 , 8600 Dübendorf , Switzerland
| | - Erio Tosatti
- International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) , Via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
- CNR-IOM Democritos National Simulation Center , Via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
- The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) , Strada Costiera 11 , 34151 Trieste , Italy
| | - Ernst Meyer
- Department of Physics , University of Basel , Klingelbergstr. 82 , CH-4056 Basel , Switzerland
| | - Andrea Vanossi
- International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) , Via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
- CNR-IOM Democritos National Simulation Center , Via Bonomea 265 , 34136 Trieste , Italy
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12
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Gnecco E, Perkin S, Vanossi A, Meyer E. Nanotribology. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:2330-2331. [PMID: 30202701 PMCID: PMC6122135 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Gnecco
- Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research (OSIM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Löbdergraben 32, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Susan Perkin
- Department of Chemistry, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Vanossi
- CNR-IOM Democritos National Simulation Center, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
- International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Ernst Meyer
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstr. 82, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
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