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Huzayyin AAS, Ibrahim MK, Hassanein NMA, Ahmed HMS. Vitamin D3 and zinc supplements augment the antimanic efficacy of lithium and olanzapine treatments in an animal model of mania. Nutr Neurosci 2024:1-14. [PMID: 38635860 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2024.2338344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Objective: Bipolar disorder (BD) is a challenging psychiatric disorder and a complex disease. The associated reduction in serum vitamin D3 (VitD3) levels in BD patients and the contribution of zinc (Zn) to the treatment, along with the severe side effects of lithium (Li) treatment, were encouraging to assess the efficacy of different correlated combinations of therapeutic/nutraceutical treatments such as olanzapine (Oln), VitD3, and Zn against Li. Methods: Mania was induced in C57BL/6 mice by administering methylphenidate (MPH) for 14 consecutive days. On the 8th day of MPH injection, different treatment regimens were administered, Li, Oln, VitD3/Zn, VitD3/Zn/Oln, VitD3 + Zn + Oln + Li50mg/kg (C50), and VitD3 + Zn + Oln + Li100mg/kg (C100). Both VitD3 (850 IU/kg) and Zn (180 mg/kg) were supplied with food for 2 weeks before starting the induction of mania, which continued until the end of MPH administration. Behavioral, brain oxidative stress, thyroid hormones, VitD3, Zn, GsK-3β, and Bcl2 levels, as well as brain histopathological alterations, were assessed. Results: Manic mice exhibited alterations in all tested parameters, and the histopathological examination of the cortex and hippocampus confirmed these results. The VitD3/Zn/Oln, C50, and C100 treatment regimens reversed most of the behavioral and pathophysiological alterations; however, the C50 treatment regimen was the most efficient. Conclusions: This study emphasizes the importance of combining different antimanic medications like Li and Oln with nutraceutical supplements to increase their antimanic efficacy, reduce their adverse effects, and, ideally, improve the BD patient's quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya A S Huzayyin
- Central Administration of Drug Control, Egyptian Drug Authority (EDA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Michael K Ibrahim
- Central Administration of Biological and Innovative Products and Clinical Studies, Egyptian Drug Authority (EDA), Giza, Egypt
| | - Nahed M A Hassanein
- Developmental Pharmacology and Acute Toxicity Department, National Organization for Drug Control and Research (NODCAR), Giza, Egypt
| | - Helmy M S Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy-Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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2
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Li H, Xiang BL, Li X, Li C, Li Y, Miao Y, Ma GL, Ma YH, Chen JQ, Zhang QY, Lv LB, Zheng P, Bi R, Yao YG. Cognitive Deficits and Alzheimer's Disease-Like Pathologies in the Aged Chinese Tree Shrew. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:1892-1906. [PMID: 37814108 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03663-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common chronic progressive neurodegenerative disease in the elderly. It has an increasing prevalence and a growing health burden. One of the limitations in studying AD is the lack of animal models that show features of Alzheimer's pathogenesis. The tree shrew has a much closer genetic affinity to primates than to rodents and has great potential to be used for research into aging and AD. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether tree shrews naturally develop cognitive impairment and major AD-like pathologies with increasing age. Pole-board and novel object recognition tests were used to assess the cognitive performance of adult (about 1 year old) and aged (6 years old or older) tree shrews. The main AD-like pathologies were assessed by Western blotting, immunohistochemical staining, immunofluorescence staining, and Nissl staining. Our results showed that the aged tree shrews developed an impaired cognitive performance compared to the adult tree shrews. Moreover, the aged tree shrews exhibited several age-related phenotypes that are associated with AD, including increased levels of amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation and phosphorylated tau protein, synaptic and neuronal loss, and reactive gliosis in the cortex and the hippocampal tissues. Our study provides further evidence that the tree shrew is a promising model for the study of aging and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Bo-Lin Xiang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiao Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Cong Li
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Yu Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Ying Miao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, School of Life Science, Division of Life Science and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Guo-Lan Ma
- Kunming Biological Diversity Regional Center of Large Apparatus and Equipments, Public Technology Service Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Yu-Hua Ma
- National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650107, China
| | - Jia-Qi Chen
- National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650107, China
| | - Qing-Yu Zhang
- National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650107, China
| | - Long-Bao Lv
- National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650107, China
| | - Ping Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
- National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650107, China
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Rui Bi
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China.
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China.
| | - Yong-Gang Yao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, and KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China.
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China.
- National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650107, China.
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650204, Yunnan, China.
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3
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Borozdenko DA, Gonchar DI, Bogorodova VI, Tarasenko DV, Kramarova EP, Khovanova SS, Golubev YV, Kiseleva NM, Shmigol TA, Ezdoglian AA, Sobyanin KA, Negrebetsky VV, Baukov YI. The Antidepressant Activity of a Taurine-Containing Derivative of 4-Phenylpyrrolidone-2 in a Model of Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16564. [PMID: 38068887 PMCID: PMC10705968 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242316564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the therapeutic potential of a new compound, potassium 2-[2-(2-oxo-4-phenylpyrrolidin-1-yl) acetamido]ethanesulfonate (Compound I), in depression. Willner's chronic unpredictable mild stress model of male Wistar rats was used as a depression model. The rats were randomized into four groups, including an intact group, a Compound I group, a Fluoxetine group, and a control group with saline. Behavioral tests, such as the Porsolt forced swim test, hole-board test, elevated plus maze test, and light-dark box, were used to assess the animals' conditions. Our results demonstrated that Compound I effectively reduced the immobilization time of rats in the forced swim test, increased orientation and exploratory behavior, and decreased the latency period of going into the dark compartment compared to the control group. Hippocampal and striatal serotonin concentrations were increased in the Compound I group, and the compound also reduced the level of corticosterone in the blood plasma of rats compared to the intact animals. These results suggest that Compound I has reliable antidepressant activity, comparable to that of the reference antidepressant Fluoxetine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yuri I. Baukov
- Institute of Pharmacy and Medicinal Chemistry, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (D.A.B.); (D.I.G.); (V.I.B.); (D.V.T.); (E.P.K.); (S.S.K.); (Y.V.G.); (N.M.K.); (T.A.S.); (A.A.E.); (K.A.S.); (V.V.N.)
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4
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Ventral hippocampal NMDA receptors mediate the effects of nicotine on stress-induced anxiety/exploratory behaviors in rats. Neurosci Lett 2022; 780:136649. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2022.136649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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5
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Brandt MJV, Nijboer CH, Nessel I, Mutshiya TR, Michael-Titus AT, Counotte DS, Schipper L, van der Aa NE, Benders MJNL, de Theije CGM. Nutritional Supplementation Reduces Lesion Size and Neuroinflammation in a Sex-Dependent Manner in a Mouse Model of Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury. Nutrients 2021; 14:176. [PMID: 35011052 PMCID: PMC8747710 DOI: 10.3390/nu14010176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) is a major cause of neonatal brain injury, leading to long-term neurological impairments. Medical nutrition can be rapidly implemented in the clinic, making it a viable intervention to improve neurodevelopment after injury. The omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3), uridine monophosphate (UMP) and choline have previously been shown in rodents to synergistically enhance brain phospholipids, synaptic components and cognitive performance. The objective of this study was to test the efficacy of an experimental diet containing DHA, EPA, UMP, choline, iodide, zinc, and vitamin B12 in a mouse model of perinatal HI. Male and female C57Bl/6 mice received the experimental diet or an isocaloric control diet from birth. Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy was induced on postnatal day 9 by ligation of the right common carotid artery and systemic hypoxia. To assess the effects of the experimental diet on long-term motor and cognitive outcome, mice were subjected to a behavioral test battery. Lesion size, neuroinflammation, brain fatty acids and phospholipids were analyzed at 15 weeks after HI. The experimental diet reduced lesion size and neuroinflammation specifically in males. In both sexes, brain n-3 fatty acids were increased after receiving the experimental diet. The experimental diet also improved novel object recognition, but no significant effects on motor performance were observed. Current data indicates that early life nutritional supplementation with a combination of DHA, EPA, UMP, choline, iodide, zinc, and vitamin B12 may provide neuroprotection after perinatal HI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrna J. V. Brandt
- Department for Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center and Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, Utrecht University, 3508 AB Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.J.V.B.); (C.H.N.)
| | - Cora H. Nijboer
- Department for Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center and Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, Utrecht University, 3508 AB Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.J.V.B.); (C.H.N.)
| | - Isabell Nessel
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AD, UK; (I.N.); (T.R.M.); (A.T.M.-T.)
| | - Tatenda R. Mutshiya
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AD, UK; (I.N.); (T.R.M.); (A.T.M.-T.)
| | - Adina T. Michael-Titus
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AD, UK; (I.N.); (T.R.M.); (A.T.M.-T.)
| | | | - Lidewij Schipper
- Danone Nutricia Research, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands; (D.S.C.); (L.S.)
| | - Niek E. van der Aa
- Department of Neonatology, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center and Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, Utrecht University, 3508 AB Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.E.v.d.A.); (M.J.N.L.B.)
| | - Manon J. N. L. Benders
- Department of Neonatology, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center and Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, Utrecht University, 3508 AB Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.E.v.d.A.); (M.J.N.L.B.)
| | - Caroline G. M. de Theije
- Department for Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center and Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, Utrecht University, 3508 AB Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.J.V.B.); (C.H.N.)
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6
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Multimodal characterization of Yucatan minipig behavior and physiology through maturation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22688. [PMID: 34811385 PMCID: PMC8608884 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00782-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain injuries induced by external forces are particularly challenging to model experimentally. In recent decades, the domestic pig has been gaining popularity as a highly relevant animal model to address the pathophysiological mechanisms and the biomechanics associated with head injuries. Understanding cognitive, motor, and sensory aspects of pig behavior throughout development is crucial for evaluating cognitive and motor deficits after injury. We have developed a comprehensive battery of tests to characterize the behavior and physiological function of the Yucatan minipig throughout maturation. Behavioral testing included assessments of learning and memory, executive functions, circadian rhythms, gait analysis, and level of motor activity. We applied traditional behavioral apparatus and analysis methods, as well as state-of-the-art sensor technologies to report on motion and activity, and artificial intelligent approaches to analyze behavior. We studied pigs from 16 weeks old through sexual maturity at 35 weeks old. The results show multidimensional characterization of minipig behavior, and how it develops and changes with age. This animal model may capitulate the biomechanical consideration and phenotype of head injuries in the developing brain and can drive forward the field of understanding pathophysiological mechanisms and developing new therapies to accelerate recovery in children who have suffered head trauma.
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van der Goot MH, Kooij M, Stolte S, Baars A, Arndt SS, van Lith HA. Incorporating inter-individual variability in experimental design improves the quality of results of animal experiments. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255521. [PMID: 34351958 PMCID: PMC8341614 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Inter-individual variability in quantitative traits is believed to potentially inflate the quality of results in animal experimentation. Yet, to our knowledge this effect has not been empirically tested. Here we test whether inter-individual variability in emotional response within mouse inbred strains affects the outcome of a pharmacological experiment. Three mouse inbred strains (BALB/c, C57BL/6 and 129S2) were behaviorally characterized through repeated exposure to a mild aversive stimulus (modified Hole Board, five consecutive trials). A multivariate clustering procedure yielded two multidimensional response types which were displayed by individuals of all three strains. We show that systematic incorporation of these individual response types in the design of a pharmacological experiment produces different results from an experimental pool in which this variation was not accounted for. To our knowledge, this is the first study that empirically confirms that inter-individual variability affects the interpretation of behavioral phenotypes and may obscure experimental results in a pharmacological experiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes H. van der Goot
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marieke Kooij
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Suzanne Stolte
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Annemarie Baars
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Saskia S. Arndt
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hein A. van Lith
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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8
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Pisula W, Modlinska K, Goncikowska K, Chrzanowska A. Can the Hole-Board Test Predict a Rat's Exploratory Behavior in a Free-Exploration Test? Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11041068. [PMID: 33918826 PMCID: PMC8070412 DOI: 10.3390/ani11041068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study focuses on the rat activity in a hole-board setting that we considered a type of exploratory behavior. The general hypothesis is based on the claim that a motivational mechanism is central to both the response to novelty in a highly familiarized environment and the activity in the hole-board apparatus. Our sample consisted of 80 experimentally naive Lister Hooded rats. All rats were tested in the hole-board apparatus. Twenty individuals with the highest hole-board scores and twenty subjects with the lowest hole-board scores subsequently underwent an established free-exploration test. In our study, the scores obtained in the hole-board test had little predictive value for the rats' activity in the free-exploration test. Based on our previous experience in studying exploratory behavior in the free-exploration test and the data presented in this paper, we suggest that the hole-board test is not an appropriate tool for measuring exploratory behavior in laboratory rodents.
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Sarkar D. A Review of Behavioral Tests to Evaluate Different Types of Anxiety and Anti-anxiety Effects. CLINICAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 18:341-351. [PMID: 32702213 PMCID: PMC7382999 DOI: 10.9758/cpn.2020.18.3.341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral tests are very useful to understand the Neuro-psychotic disease and also helpful in finding the treatment of the particular disease. Nowadays various tests are available to evaluate the anxiolytics effect of a new entity or even for comparative studies with the standard drug. As per the ethics, a new compound or drug believes to have possible pharmacological effects should be tested on animals before tested on humans which have similar physiology than humans. First, rats were used for behavioral test for evaluation of anti-anxiety drug but later on the various strain of mice were added for evaluation of anxiolytics because of better genetic possibilities than rats. In this review article, we have discussed the most commonly used behavioral tests used to evaluate the anti-anxiety effect. Anxiolytics are the agent which are used to elevate anxiety effect produced due to any cause. The various parameter will be undertaken for the better and precise evaluation of anxiolytics.
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Affiliation(s)
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- HIMT College of Pharmacy, Greater Noida, India
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- School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
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- HIMT College of Pharmacy, Greater Noida, India
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10
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Kokras N, Dioli C, Paravatou R, Sotiropoulos MG, Delis F, Antoniou K, Calogeropoulou T, Charalampopoulos I, Gravanis A, Dalla C. Psychoactive properties of BNN27, a novel neurosteroid derivate, in male and female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:2435-2449. [PMID: 32506234 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05545-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Νeurosteroids, like dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), play an important role in neurodegeneration and neural protection, but they are metabolized in androgens, estrogens, or other active metabolites. A newly developed synthetic DHEA analog, BNN27 ((20R)-3β,21-dihydroxy-17R,20-epoxy-5-pregnene), exerts neurotrophic and neuroprotective actions without estrogenic or androgenic effects. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to investigate potential anxiolytic or antidepressant properties of BNN27. METHODS Male and female adult Wistar rats were treated with BNN27 (10, 30, or 90 mg/kg, i.p.) and subjected to behavioral tests measuring locomotion, exploration, and "depressive-like" behavior (open field, light/dark box, hole-board, and forced swim tests). The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were collected for glutamate and GABA measurements, and trunk blood was collected for gonadal hormone analysis. RESULTS Acute high-dose BNN27 reduced locomotion and exploratory behavior in both sexes. Intermediate acute doses (30 mg/kg) of BNN27 reduced exploration and testosterone levels only in males, and enhanced progesterone levels in both sexes. Notably, with the present design, BNN27 had neither anxiolytic nor antidepressant effects and did not affect estrogen levels. Interestingly, acute administration of a low BNN27 dose (10 mg/kg) increased glutamate turnover, GABA, and glutamine levels in the hippocampus. The same dose also enhanced glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex of males only. Sex differences were apparent in the basal levels of behavioral, hormonal, and neurochemical parameters, as expected. CONCLUSIONS BNN27 affects locomotion, progesterone, and testosterone levels, as well as the glutamatergic and GABAergic systems of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in a sex-dependent way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Kokras
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, 11527, Athens, Greece.,First Department of Psychiatry, Eginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Chrysoula Dioli
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Rafaella Paravatou
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Marinos G Sotiropoulos
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, 11527, Athens, Greece.,Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Hale ΒΤΜ 9002AA, 60 Fenwood Road, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Foteini Delis
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Katerina Antoniou
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Theodora Calogeropoulou
- Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Ave, 11635, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis Charalampopoulos
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71110, Heraklion, Greece.,Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation of Research and Technology Hellas (FORTH), Heraklion, Greece
| | - Achille Gravanis
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71110, Heraklion, Greece.,Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation of Research and Technology Hellas (FORTH), Heraklion, Greece
| | - Christina Dalla
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, 11527, Athens, Greece.
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11
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Bourin M. Experimental Anxiety Model for Anxiety Disorders: Relevance to Drug Discovery. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1191:169-184. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-32-9705-0_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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12
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Improving the practicality of using non-aversive handling methods to reduce background stress and anxiety in laboratory mice. Sci Rep 2019; 9:20305. [PMID: 31889107 PMCID: PMC6937263 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56860-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Handling can stimulate stress and anxiety in laboratory animals that negatively impacts welfare and introduces a confounding factor in many areas of research. Picking up mice by the tail is a major source of handling stress that results in strong aversion to the handler, while mice familiarised with being picked up in a tunnel or cupped on the open hand show low stress and anxiety, and actively seek interaction with their handlers. Here we investigate the duration and frequency of handling required for effective familiarisation with these non-aversive handling methods, and test whether this is sufficient to prevent aversion and anxiety when animals then experience immobilisation and a mild procedure (subcutaneous injection). Very brief handling (2 s) was sufficient to familiarise mice with tunnel handling, even when experienced only during cage cleaning. Brief but more frequent handling was needed for familiarisation with cup handling, while pick up by tail induced strong aversion even when handling was brief and infrequent. Experience of repeated immobilisation and subcutaneous injection did not reverse the positive effects of tunnel handling. Our findings demonstrate that replacing tail with tunnel handling during routine cage cleaning and procedures provides a major refinement with little if any cost for familiarisation.
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Sampedro-Piquero P, Mañas-Padilla MC, Ávila-Gámiz F, Gil-Rodríguez S, Santín LJ, Castilla-Ortega E. Where to place the rewards? Exploration bias in mice influences performance in the classic hole-board spatial memory test. Anim Cogn 2019; 22:433-443. [PMID: 30852738 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01256-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The classic hole-board paradigm (a square arena with 16 holes arranged equidistantly in a 4 × 4 pattern) assesses both exploration and spatial memory in rodents. For spatial memory training, food rewards are hidden in a fixed set of holes. The animal must not visit (i.e. nose-poke) the holes that are never baited (reference memory; RM) nor re-visit a baited hole within a session (working memory; WM). However, previous exploratory bias may affect performance during reward searching. During habituation sessions with either all holes rewarded or all holes empty, mice intrinsically preferred poking peripheral holes (especially those located in the maze's corners) over centre holes. During spatial memory training, mice progressively shifted their hole pokes and staying time to the central area that contained hidden rewards, while mice exposed to the empty apparatus still preferred the periphery. A group of pseudotrained mice, for whom rewards were located randomly throughout the maze, also increased their central preference. Furthermore, reward location influenced memory measures. Most repeated pokes (WM-errors) were scored in the locations that were most intrinsically appealing to mice (i.e. the corner and wall-baited holes), supporting a strong influence of previous exploratory bias. Regarding RM, finding rewards located in the centre holes, which were initially less preferred, entailed more difficulty and required more trials to learn. This outcome was confirmed by a second experiment that varied the pattern of rewarded holes, as well as the starting positions. Therefore, reward location is a relevant aspect to consider when designing a hole-board memory task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Sampedro-Piquero
- Insituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA, Malaga, Spain.
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las CC, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071, Malaga, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Mañas-Padilla
- Insituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA, Malaga, Spain
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las CC, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Fabiola Ávila-Gámiz
- Insituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA, Malaga, Spain
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las CC, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Sara Gil-Rodríguez
- Insituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA, Malaga, Spain
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las CC, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Luis J Santín
- Insituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA, Malaga, Spain.
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las CC, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071, Malaga, Spain.
| | - Estela Castilla-Ortega
- Insituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA, Malaga, Spain.
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Avenida Carlos Haya 82, 29010, Malaga, Spain.
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Díaz-Gerevini GT, Daín A, Pasqualini ME, López CB, Eynard AR, Repossi G. Diabetic encephalopathy: beneficial effects of supplementation with fatty acids ω3 and nordihydroguaiaretic acid in a spontaneous diabetes rat model. Lipids Health Dis 2019; 18:43. [PMID: 30736810 PMCID: PMC6368734 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-018-0938-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Diabetic encephalopathy is a chronic complications of diabetes mellitus that affects the central nervous system. We evaluated the effect of ω3 and ω6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) supplementation plus the antioxidant agent nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) on the etiopathology of diabetic encephalopathy in eSS rats, a spontaneous model of type 2 diabetes. Methods One hundred twenty spontaneous diabetic eSS male rats and 38 non-diabetic Wistar, used as healthy control, received monthly by intraperitoneal route, ω3 or ω6 PUFA (6.25 mg/kg) alone or plus NDGA (1.19 mg/kg) for 12 months. Diabetic rats had a worse performance in behavioural Hole-Board test. Histopathological analysis confirmed lesions in diabetic rats brain tissues. We also detected low expression of synaptophysin, a protein linked to release of neurotransmitters, by immunohistochemically techniques in eSS rats brain. Biochemical and histopathological studies of brain were performed at 12th month. Biochemical analysis showed altered parameters related to metabolism. High levels of markers of oxidative stress and inflammation were detected in plasma and brain tissues. Data were analysed by ANOVA test and paired t test was used by comparison of measurements of the same parameter at different times. Results The data obtained in this work showed that behavioural, biochemical and morphological alterations observed in eSS rats are compatible with previously reported indices in diabetic encephalopathy and are associated with increased glucolipotoxicity, chronic low-grade inflammation and oxidative stress burden. Experimental treatments assayed modulated the values of studied parameters. Conclusions The treatments tested with ω3 or ω3 plus NDGA showed improvement in the values of the studied parameters in eSS diabetic rats. These observations may form the basis to help in prevent and manage the diabetic encephalopathy. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12944-018-0938-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Tomás Díaz-Gerevini
- Biología Celular, Histología y Embriología. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, INICSA CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Geriatric Center "San Ricardo Pampuri", Villa Carlos Paz and Gerontology Committee, Argentine Society of Diabetes, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Daín
- Biología Celular, Histología y Embriología. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, INICSA CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Eugenia Pasqualini
- Biología Celular, Histología y Embriología. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, INICSA CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Cristina B López
- Biología Celular, Histología y Embriología. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, INICSA CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Cátedra de Histología y Embriología, Universidad Nacional de La Rioja (UNLaR), La Rioja, Argentina
| | - Aldo R Eynard
- Biología Celular, Histología y Embriología. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, INICSA CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Gastón Repossi
- Biología Celular, Histología y Embriología. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, INICSA CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.
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Influence of sex and hormonal status on initial impact and neurocognitive outcome after subarachnoid haemorrhage in rats. Behav Brain Res 2019; 363:13-22. [PMID: 30703399 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to detect differences in functional outcome after experimental subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) in rodents with different hormonal status. For this purpose, the endovascular perforation model was applied to four groups of Sprague-Dawley-Rats: male intact, male neutered, female intact and female neutered animals. Initial impact was measured by ICP, CPP and cerebral blood flow in the first hour after SAH. From day 4-14, the modified hole board test was applied to assess functional and neuro-cognitive outcome. Histological outcome was examined in the motor cortex and hippocampus of each hemisphere. Mortality was highest in the female intact group albeit not statistically significant. Physiologic parameters did not differ significantly between groups either. In the modified hole board test, male intact animals showed a greater impairment of declarative memory than the female intact and neutered groups. However, male intact animals showed greater avoidance behaviour and male animals revealed higher anxiety levels independent of hormonal status. No differences in histological damage of hippocampus and motor cortex between groups could be shown. We therefore speculate that the marginal deficits in cognitive performance that are shown by the male intact group in the modified hole board test are mostly caused by higher anxiety levels and cannot be interpreted as pure cognitive impairment.
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Gouveia K, Hurst JL. Optimising reliability of mouse performance in behavioural testing: the major role of non-aversive handling. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44999. [PMID: 28322308 PMCID: PMC5359560 DOI: 10.1038/srep44999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Handling laboratory animals during test procedures is an important source of stress that may impair reliability of test responses. Picking up mice by the tail is aversive, stimulating stress and anxiety. Responses among anxious animals can be confounded further by neophobia towards novel test environments and avoidance of test stimuli in open areas. However, handling stress can be reduced substantially by using a handling tunnel, or cupping mice without restraint on the open hand. Here we establish whether non-aversive handling, brief prior familiarisation with the test arena and alternative stimulus placement could significantly improve performance of mice in behavioural tests. We use a simple habituation-dishabituation paradigm in which animals must discriminate between two urine stimuli in successive trials, a task that mice can easily perform. Tail handled mice showed little willingness to explore and investigate test stimuli, leading to poor test performance that was only slightly improved by prior familiarisation. By contrast, those handled by tunnel explored readily and showed robust responses to test stimuli regardless of prior familiarisation or stimulus location, though responses were more variable for cup handling. Our study shows that non-aversive tunnel handling can substantially improve mouse performance in behavioural tests compared to traditional tail handling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Gouveia
- Mammalian Behaviour and Evolution Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Jane L. Hurst
- Mammalian Behaviour and Evolution Group, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
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Labots M, Zheng X, Moattari G, Ohl F, van Lith HA. Effects of light regime and substrain on behavioral profiles of male C57BL/6 mice in three tests of unconditioned anxiety. J Neurogenet 2016; 30:306-315. [PMID: 27845603 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2016.1249868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Substrains of the C57BL/6 inbred mouse are widely used in genetic, behavioral and physiological research, as well as models for human disease. Throughout, the choice of the respective substrain can have a large influence on experimental results. Likewise, the conditions under which experiments are performed, such as the light regime, can significantly affect the outcome of an experiment, especially when aiming at experimental behavior. Here, two commonly used mouse substrains, C57BL/6JOlaHsd and C57BL/6NCrl, were housed under either a conventional or a reverse light regime and were tested in either the light phase or the dark phase, respectively. All animals were exposed to three unconditioned anxiety-related behavior set-ups: the modified Hole Board test, the light-dark box and the elevated plus maze. Significant substrain and light regime effects were found in all three behavioral tests, with some of the latter being substrain and test specific. This signifies the importance of the choice of substrain used in for example, a mouse knockout experiment studying behavior, also in relation to light regime under which the animals are tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike Labots
- a Department of Animals in Science and Society, Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Utrecht , the Netherlands.,b Brain Center Rudolf Magnus , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , the Netherlands
| | - Xiaochu Zheng
- a Department of Animals in Science and Society, Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Utrecht , the Netherlands
| | - Golnaz Moattari
- a Department of Animals in Science and Society, Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Utrecht , the Netherlands
| | - Frauke Ohl
- a Department of Animals in Science and Society, Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Utrecht , the Netherlands.,b Brain Center Rudolf Magnus , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , the Netherlands
| | - Hein A van Lith
- a Department of Animals in Science and Society, Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Utrecht , the Netherlands.,b Brain Center Rudolf Magnus , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , the Netherlands
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Labots M, Laarakker MC, Ohl F, van Lith HA. Consomic mouse strain selection based on effect size measurement, statistical significance testing and integrated behavioral z-scoring: focus on anxiety-related behavior and locomotion. BMC Genet 2016; 17:95. [PMID: 27357390 PMCID: PMC4928255 DOI: 10.1186/s12863-016-0411-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Selecting chromosome substitution strains (CSSs, also called consomic strains/lines) used in the search for quantitative trait loci (QTLs) consistently requires the identification of the respective phenotypic trait of interest and is simply based on a significant difference between a consomic and host strain. However, statistical significance as represented by P values does not necessarily predicate practical importance. We therefore propose a method that pays attention to both the statistical significance and the actual size of the observed effect. The present paper extends on this approach and describes in more detail the use of effect size measures (Cohen’s d, partial eta squared - ηp2) together with the P value as statistical selection parameters for the chromosomal assignment of QTLs influencing anxiety-related behavior and locomotion in laboratory mice. Results The effect size measures were based on integrated behavioral z-scoring and were calculated in three experiments: (A) a complete consomic male mouse panel with A/J as the donor strain and C57BL/6J as the host strain. This panel, including host and donor strains, was analyzed in the modified Hole Board (mHB). The consomic line with chromosome 19 from A/J (CSS-19A) was selected since it showed increased anxiety-related behavior, but similar locomotion compared to its host. (B) Following experiment A, female CSS-19A mice were compared with their C57BL/6J counterparts; however no significant differences and effect sizes close to zero were found. (C) A different consomic mouse strain (CSS-19PWD), with chromosome 19 from PWD/PhJ transferred on the genetic background of C57BL/6J, was compared with its host strain. Here, in contrast with CSS-19A, there was a decreased overall anxiety in CSS-19PWD compared to C57BL/6J males, but not locomotion. Conclusions This new method shows an improved way to identify CSSs for QTL analysis for anxiety-related behavior using a combination of statistical significance testing and effect sizes. In addition, an intercross between CSS-19A and CSS-19PWD may be of interest for future studies on the genetic background of anxiety-related behavior. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12863-016-0411-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Labots
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - M C Laarakker
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Present Address: Boston Scientific Nederland B.V., Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - F Ohl
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - H A van Lith
- Division of Animal Welfare & Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80166, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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