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Choi EJ, Baek IC, Park S, Kim HJ, Kim TG. Development of cost-effective and fast KIR genotyping by multiplex PCR-SSP. HLA 2024; 103:e15191. [PMID: 37688498 DOI: 10.1111/tan.15191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) control natural killer (NK) cell functions by recognizing HLA molecules and modulating the activity of NK cells. The KIR gene cluster contains polymorphic and highly homologous genes. Diversity of the KIR region is achieved through differences in gene content, allelic polymorphism, and gene copy number, which result in unrelated individuals having different KIR genotypes and individualized immune responses that are relevant to multiple aspects of human health and disease. Therefore, KIR genotyping is increasingly used in epidemiological studies. Here, we developed multiplex polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific primers (PCR-SSP) to compensate for the shortcomings of the conventional PCR-SSP method, which is most commonly used for KIR analysis. Multiplex PCR-SSP method involves six multiplex reactions that detect 16 KIR genes and distinguish variant types of some KIR genes by adding two reactions. The assay was evaluated in a blind survey using a panel of 40 reference DNA standards from the UCLA KIR Exchange Program. The results are 100% concordant with the genotype determined using Luminex-based reverse sequence-specific oligonucleotide typing systems. Additionally, we investigated the currently known 16 KIR genes and their common variants in 120 unrelated Korean individuals. The results were consistent with the KIR genotype previously reported by Hwang et al. This multiplex PCR-SSP is an efficient method for analyzing KIR genotypes in both small- and large-scale studies with minimal labor, reagents, and DNA. Furthermore, by providing a better definition of KIR polymorphisms it can contribute to developments in immunogenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Jeong Choi
- Hematopoietic Stem Cell Bank, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Cheol Baek
- Hematopoietic Stem Cell Bank, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Silvia Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Catholic Blood and Marrow Transplantation Center, Leukemia Research Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Je Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Catholic Blood and Marrow Transplantation Center, Leukemia Research Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tai-Gyu Kim
- Hematopoietic Stem Cell Bank, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Dhuyser A, Remen T, Pérès M, Chamberlain-Evans V, Nemat-Gorgani N, Campidelli A, Clément S, Rubio MT, Trowsdale J, Aarnink A, Traherne J. Comparison of NK alloreactivity prediction models based on KIR-MHC interactions in haematopoeitic stem cell transplantation. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1028162. [PMID: 36936953 PMCID: PMC10017772 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1028162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The biological processes underlying NK cell alloreactivity in haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) remain unclear. Many different models to predict NK alloreactivity through KIR and MHC genotyping exist, raising ambiguities in its utility and application for clinicians. We assessed 27 predictive models, broadly divided into six categories of alloreactivity prediction: ligand-ligand, receptor-ligand, educational, KIR haplotype-based, KIR matching and KIR allelic polymorphism. The models were applied to 78 NGS-typed donor/recipient pairs undergoing allogeneic HSCT in genoidentical (n=43) or haploidentical (n=35) matchings. Correlations between different predictive models differed widely, suggesting that the choice of the model in predicting NK alloreactivity matters. For example, two broadly used models, educational and receptor-ligand, led to opposing predictions especially in the genoidentical cohort. Correlations also depended on the matching fashion, suggesting that this parameter should also be taken into account in the choice of the scoring strategy. The number of centromeric B-motifs was the only model strongly correlated with the incidence of acute graft-versus-host disease in our set of patients in both the genoidentical and the haploidentical cohorts, suggesting that KIR-based alloreactivity, not MHC mismatches, are responsible for it. To our best knowledge, this paper is the first to experimentally compare NK alloreactivity prediction models within a cohort of genoidentical and haploidentical donor-recipient pairs. This study helps to resolve current discrepancies in KIR-based alloreactivity predictions and highlights the need for deeper consideration of the models used in clinical studies as well as in medical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adèle Dhuyser
- Histocompatibility Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
- Ingénieurie Moléculaire et Physiopathologie Articulaire, team 6 (IMoPA6), Unité Mixte de Recherche 7365 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
- *Correspondence: James Traherne, ; Adèle Dhuyser,
| | - Thomas Remen
- Direction de la Recherche Clinique et de l’Innovation, Unité de Méthodologie, Datamanagement et Statistiques, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
| | - Michaël Pérès
- Histocompatibility Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
| | | | - Neda Nemat-Gorgani
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Arnaud Campidelli
- Department of Hematology, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
| | - Sandra Clément
- Histocompatibility Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
| | - Marie Thérèse Rubio
- Ingénieurie Moléculaire et Physiopathologie Articulaire, team 6 (IMoPA6), Unité Mixte de Recherche 7365 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
- Department of Hematology, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
| | - John Trowsdale
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Alice Aarnink
- Histocompatibility Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Nancy, Nancy, France
- Ingénieurie Moléculaire et Physiopathologie Articulaire, team 6 (IMoPA6), Unité Mixte de Recherche 7365 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - James Traherne
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: James Traherne, ; Adèle Dhuyser,
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Chaisri S, Jayaraman J, Mongkolsapaya J, Duangchinda T, Jumniansong A, Trowsdale J, Traherne JA, Leelayuwat C. KIR copy number variations in dengue-infected patients from northeastern Thailand. Hum Immunol 2022; 83:328-334. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2022.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Dębska-Zielkowska J, Moszkowska G, Zieliński M, Zielińska H, Dukat-Mazurek A, Trzonkowski P, Stefańska K. KIR Receptors as Key Regulators of NK Cells Activity in Health and Disease. Cells 2021; 10:1777. [PMID: 34359951 PMCID: PMC8303609 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are part of the cellular immune response. They target mainly cancer and virally infected cells. To a high extent cytotoxic activity of NK cells is regulated inter alia by signals from killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR). The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules are important ligands for KIR receptors. Binding of ligands (such as MHC I) to the KIR receptors has the important role in solid organ or hematopoietic cell transplantation. Of note, the understanding of the relationship between KIR and MHC receptors may contribute to the improvement of transplant results. Donor-recipient matching, which also includes the KIR typing, may improve monitoring, individualize the treatment and allow for predicting possible effects after transplantation, such as the graft-versus-leukemia effect (GvL) or viral re-infection. There are also less evident implications of KIR/MHC matching, such as with pregnancy and cancer. In this review, we present the most relevant literature reports on the importance of the KIR/MHC relationship on NK cell activity and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT)/solid organ transplantation (SOT) effects, the risk of allograft rejection, protection against post-transplant cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, pregnancy complications, cancer and adoptive therapy with NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Dębska-Zielkowska
- Department of Medical Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland; (G.M.); (M.Z.); (H.Z.); (A.D.-M.); (P.T.)
| | - Grażyna Moszkowska
- Department of Medical Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland; (G.M.); (M.Z.); (H.Z.); (A.D.-M.); (P.T.)
| | - Maciej Zieliński
- Department of Medical Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland; (G.M.); (M.Z.); (H.Z.); (A.D.-M.); (P.T.)
| | - Hanna Zielińska
- Department of Medical Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland; (G.M.); (M.Z.); (H.Z.); (A.D.-M.); (P.T.)
| | - Anna Dukat-Mazurek
- Department of Medical Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland; (G.M.); (M.Z.); (H.Z.); (A.D.-M.); (P.T.)
| | - Piotr Trzonkowski
- Department of Medical Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland; (G.M.); (M.Z.); (H.Z.); (A.D.-M.); (P.T.)
| | - Katarzyna Stefańska
- Department of Obstetrics, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-214 Gdansk, Poland;
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Duygu B, Olieslagers TI, Groeneweg M, Voorter CEM, Wieten L. HLA Class I Molecules as Immune Checkpoints for NK Cell Alloreactivity and Anti-Viral Immunity in Kidney Transplantation. Front Immunol 2021; 12:680480. [PMID: 34295330 PMCID: PMC8290519 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.680480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes that can kill diseased- or virally-infected cells, mediate antibody dependent cytotoxicity and produce type I immune-associated cytokines upon activation. NK cells also contribute to the allo-immune response upon kidney transplantation either by promoting allograft rejection through lysis of cells of the transplanted organ or by promoting alloreactive T cells. In addition, they protect against viral infections upon transplantation which may be especially relevant in patients receiving high dose immune suppression. NK cell activation is tightly regulated through the integrated balance of signaling via inhibitory- and activating receptors. HLA class I molecules are critical regulators of NK cell activation through the interaction with inhibitory- as well as activating NK cell receptors, hence, HLA molecules act as critical immune checkpoints for NK cells. In the current review, we evaluate how NK cell alloreactivity and anti-viral immunity are regulated by NK cell receptors belonging to the KIR family and interacting with classical HLA class I molecules, or by NKG2A/C and LILRB1/KIR2DL4 engaging non-classical HLA-E or -G. In addition, we provide an overview of the methods to determine genetic variation in these receptors and their HLA ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burcu Duygu
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,GROW, School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Timo I Olieslagers
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,GROW, School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Mathijs Groeneweg
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,GROW, School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Christina E M Voorter
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,GROW, School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Lotte Wieten
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,GROW, School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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Tukwasibwe S, Traherne JA, Chazara O, Jayaraman J, Trowsdale J, Moffett A, Jiang W, Nankabirwa JI, Rek J, Arinaitwe E, Nsobya SL, Atuheirwe M, Frank M, Godwin A, Jagannathan P, Cose S, Kamya MR, Dorsey G, Rosenthal PJ, Colucci F, Nakimuli A. Diversity of KIR genes and their HLA-C ligands in Ugandan populations with historically varied malaria transmission intensity. Malar J 2021; 20:111. [PMID: 33632228 PMCID: PMC7908804 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-021-03652-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malaria is one of the most serious infectious diseases in the world. The malaria burden is greatly affected by human immunity, and immune responses vary between populations. Genetic diversity in KIR and HLA-C genes, which are important in immunity to infectious diseases, is likely to play a role in this heterogeneity. Several studies have shown that KIR and HLA-C genes influence the immune response to viral infections, but few studies have examined the role of KIR and HLA-C in malaria infection, and these have used low-resolution genotyping. The aim of this study was to determine whether genetic variation in KIR and their HLA-C ligands differ in Ugandan populations with historically varied malaria transmission intensity using more comprehensive genotyping approaches. METHODS High throughput multiplex quantitative real-time PCR method was used to genotype KIR genetic variants and copy number variation and a high-throughput real-time PCR method was developed to genotype HLA-C1 and C2 allotypes for 1344 participants, aged 6 months to 10 years, enrolled from Ugandan populations with historically high (Tororo District), medium (Jinja District) and low (Kanungu District) malaria transmission intensity. RESULTS The prevalence of KIR3DS1, KIR2DL5, KIR2DS5, and KIR2DS1 genes was significantly lower in populations from Kanungu compared to Tororo (7.6 vs 13.2%: p = 0.006, 57.2 vs 66.4%: p = 0.005, 33.2 vs 46.6%: p < 0.001, and 19.7 vs 26.7%: p = 0.014, respectively) or Jinja (7.6 vs 18.1%: p < 0.001, 57.2 vs 63.8%: p = 0.048, 33.2 vs 43.5%: p = 0.002, and 19.7 vs 30.4%: p < 0.001, respectively). The prevalence of homozygous HLA-C2 was significantly higher in populations from Kanungu (31.6%) compared to Jinja (21.4%), p = 0.043, with no significant difference between Kanungu and Tororo (26.7%), p = 0.296. CONCLUSIONS The KIR3DS1, KIR2DL5, KIR2DS5 and KIR2DS1 genes may partly explain differences in transmission intensity of malaria since these genes have been positively selected for in places with historically high malaria transmission intensity. The high-throughput, multiplex, real-time HLA-C genotyping PCR method developed will be useful in disease-association studies involving large cohorts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Tukwasibwe
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- Infectious Diseases Research Collaboration, 2C Nakasero Hill Road, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Olympe Chazara
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- University of Cambridge Centre for Trophoblast Research, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jyothi Jayaraman
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- University of Cambridge Centre for Trophoblast Research, Cambridge, UK
| | - John Trowsdale
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ashley Moffett
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- University of Cambridge Centre for Trophoblast Research, Cambridge, UK
| | - Wei Jiang
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Joaniter I. Nankabirwa
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- Infectious Diseases Research Collaboration, 2C Nakasero Hill Road, Kampala, Uganda
| | - John Rek
- Infectious Diseases Research Collaboration, 2C Nakasero Hill Road, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Emmanuel Arinaitwe
- Infectious Diseases Research Collaboration, 2C Nakasero Hill Road, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Samuel L. Nsobya
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- Infectious Diseases Research Collaboration, 2C Nakasero Hill Road, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Maxine Atuheirwe
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Mubiru Frank
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Anguzu Godwin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Stephen Cose
- MRC/UVRI and LSHTM Uganda Research Unit, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Moses R. Kamya
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
- Infectious Diseases Research Collaboration, 2C Nakasero Hill Road, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | | | - Francesco Colucci
- University of Cambridge Centre for Trophoblast Research, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, University of Cambridge, National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Cambridge, CB2 0SW UK
| | - Annettee Nakimuli
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, P.O BOX 7072, Kampala, Uganda
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Quantitative Multiplex Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction with Fluorescent Probe Detection of Killer Immunoglobulin-Like Receptors, KIR2DL4/3DL3. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:diagnostics10080588. [PMID: 32823754 PMCID: PMC7460478 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10080588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: KIR2DL4/KIR3DL3 are the framework genes present in all KIR haplotypes, with unique expression patterns being present only in women and CD56bright NK cells. KIR genes have a high degree of DNA sequence identity. Consequently, they are one of the most challenging genes for molecular detection—especially regarding expressions; (2) Methods: We developed an effective method to determine KIR3DL3/KIR2DL4 expressions based on a multiplex quantitative real-time Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR )with fluorescent probes using NK92; (3) Results: Standardizations of the singleplex KIR2DL4 and KIR3DL3 were performed to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity for further development of the multiplex assay. The limit of detection was at 500 copies each. There was cross-amplification with the presence of related KIR genes at a level of 5 × 107 copies. This is not biologically significant because this high level of KIR expression has not been found in clinical samples. The multiplex assay was reproducible equivalent to its singleplex (KIR2DL4; R2 = 0.995, KIR3DL3; R2 = 0.996, but lower sensitivity of 103 copies). Furthermore, the validation of the developed method on samples of blood donors showed high sensitivity (100%) and specificity (99.9%); (4) Conclusions: The developed method is reliable and highly specific suitable for evaluation of the KIR2DL4/3DL3 mRNA expressions in further applications.
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Elasifer H, Wang EC, Prod’homme V, Davies J, Forbes S, Stanton RJ, Patel M, Fielding CA, Roberts D, Traherne JA, Gruber N, Bugert JJ, Aicheler RJ, Wilkinson GWG. Downregulation of HLA-I by the molluscum contagiosum virus mc080 impacts NK-cell recognition and promotes CD8 + T-cell evasion. J Gen Virol 2020; 101:863-872. [PMID: 32510303 PMCID: PMC7641395 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) is a common cause of benign skin lesions in young children and currently the only endemic human poxvirus. Following the infection of primary keratinocytes in the epidermis, MCV induces the proliferation of infected cells and this results in the production of wart-like growths. Full productive infection is observed only after the infected cells differentiate. During this prolonged replication cycle the virus must avoid elimination by the host immune system. We therefore sought to investigate the function of the two major histocompatibility complex class-I-related genes encoded by the MCV genes mc033 and mc080. Following insertion into a replication-deficient adenovirus vector, codon-optimized versions of mc033 and mc080 were expressed as endoglycosidase-sensitive glycoproteins that localized primarily in the endoplasmic reticulum. MC080, but not MC033, downregulated cell-surface expression of endogenous classical human leucocyte antigen (HLA) class I and non-classical HLA-E by a transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP)-independent mechanism. MC080 exhibited a capacity to inhibit or activate NK cells in autologous assays in a donor-specific manner. MC080 consistently inhibited antigen-specific T cells being activated by peptide-pulsed targets. We therefore propose that MC080 acts to promote evasion of HLA-I-restricted cytotoxic T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Elasifer
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Eddie C.Y. Wang
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Virginie Prod’homme
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
- Present address: Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire, University of Nice Sophia, Antipolis, France
| | - James Davies
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Simone Forbes
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Richard J. Stanton
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Mihil Patel
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Ceri A. Fielding
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Dawn Roberts
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - James A. Traherne
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Nicole Gruber
- DKMS Life Science Lab, St. Petersburger Str. 2, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Joachim J. Bugert
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
- Present address: Institut für Mikrobiologie der Bundeswehr, München, Germany
| | - Rebecca J. Aicheler
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff CF5 2YB, UK
| | - Gavin W. G. Wilkinson
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
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