1
|
Monticelli SR, Bryk P, Brewer MG, Aguilar HC, Norbury CC, Ward BM. An increase in glycoprotein concentration on extracellular virions dramatically alters vaccinia virus infectivity and pathogenesis without impacting immunogenicity. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1010177. [PMID: 34962975 PMCID: PMC8746760 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The extracellular virion (EV) form of Orthopoxviruses is required for cell-to-cell spread and pathogenesis, and is the target of neutralizing antibodies in the protective immune response. EV have a double envelope that contains several unique proteins that are involved in its intracellular envelopment and/or subsequent infectivity. One of these, F13, is involved in both EV formation and infectivity. Here, we report that replacement of vaccinia virus F13L with the molluscum contagiosum virus homolog, MC021L, results in the production of EV particles with significantly increased levels of EV glycoproteins, which correlate with a small plaque phenotype. Using a novel fluorescence-activated virion sorting assay to isolate EV populations based on glycoprotein content we determine that EV containing either higher or lower levels of glycoproteins are less infectious, suggesting that there is an optimal concentration of glycoproteins in the outer envelope that is required for maximal infectivity of EV. This optimal glycoprotein concentration was required for lethality and induction of pathology in a cutaneous model of animal infection, but was not required for induction of a protective immune response. Therefore, our results demonstrate that there is a sensitive balance between glycoprotein incorporation, infectivity, and pathogenesis, and that manipulation of EV glycoprotein levels can produce vaccine vectors in which pathologic side effects are attenuated without a marked diminution in induction of protective immunity. Viral glycoproteins are critical determinants of host cell tropism, immunity, and pathogenesis. Vaccinia virus was used for the most successful immunization program in history, and poxviruses continue to be used as vaccine vectors. Here, we report that vaccinia virus extracellular virion (EV) protein F13 plays an important, previously unappreciated, role in controlling glycoprotein incorporation, and that there is a direct relationship between glycoprotein concentrations and subsequent infectivity. Crucially, manipulation of the EV glycoprotein concentrations altered pathogenesis and lethality in an in vivo infection model, but did not markedly alter the induced immune response. These results have important implications that inform the design of safer and more efficacious poxvirus-based vaccine vectors by altering glycoprotein content.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie R. Monticelli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - Peter Bryk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - Matthew G. Brewer
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - Hector C. Aguilar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Christopher C. Norbury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Brian M. Ward
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Khlusevich Y, Matveev A, Baykov I, Bulychev L, Bormotov N, Ilyichev I, Shevelev G, Morozova V, Pyshnyi D, Tikunova N. Phage display antibodies against ectromelia virus that neutralize variola virus: Selection and implementation for p35 neutralizing epitope mapping. Antiviral Res 2018; 152:18-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
3
|
Achdout H, Lustig S, Israely T, Erez N, Politi B, Tamir H, Israeli O, Waner T, Melamed S, Paran N. Induction, treatment and prevention of eczema vaccinatum in atopic dermatitis mouse models. Vaccine 2017. [PMID: 28625523 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Eczema vaccinatum is a severe and occasionally lethal complication of smallpox vaccine, characterized by systemic viral dissemination, distant from the initial inoculation site of the vaccine. A major risk factor for eczema vaccinatum is a background of atopic dermatitis, a chronic, common allergic, relapsing disorder, manifested by dry and inflamed skin, itchy rash, Th2 biased immune response and hypersensitivity to various antigens. Unlike the severe manifestations of eczema vaccinatum in humans, current models present only mild symptoms that limits examination of potential therapeutics for eczema vaccinatum. The atopic dermatitis and eczema vaccinatum models we present here, are the first to simulate the severity of the diseases in humans. Indeed, dermatitic mice display persistent severe dermatitis, characterized by dry and inflamed skin with barrier dysfunction, epidermal hyperplasia and significant elevation of serum IgE. By exposing atopic dermatitis mice to ectromelia virus, we generated eczema vaccinatum that mimic the human disease better than known eczema vaccinatum models. Similarly to humans, eczematous mice displayed enlarged and disseminated skin lesions, which correlated with elevated viral load. Cidofovir and antiviral antibodies conferred protection even when treatment started at a late eczematous stage. Moreover, we are the first to demonstrate that despite a severe background of atopic dermatitis, modified vaccinia Ankara virus (MVA) vaccination protects against lethal ectromelia virus exposure. We finally show that protection by MVA vaccination is dependent on CD4+ T cells and is associated with significant activation of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells and induction of humoral immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hagit Achdout
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Shlomo Lustig
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Tomer Israely
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Noam Erez
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Boaz Politi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Hadas Tamir
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Ofir Israeli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Trevor Waner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Sharon Melamed
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Nir Paran
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness-Ziona, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Development of an animal model of progressive vaccinia in nu/nu mice and the use of bioluminescence imaging for assessment of the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies against vaccinial B5 and L1 proteins. Antiviral Res 2017; 144:8-20. [PMID: 28495463 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Bioluminescence imaging (BLI) was used to follow dissemination of recombinant vaccinia virus (VACV) expressing luciferase (IHD-J-Luc) in BALB/c nu/nu mice treated post-challenge with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against L1 and B5 VACV proteins in a model of Progressive Vaccinia (PV). Areas Under the flux Curve (AUC) were calculated for viral loads in multiple organs in individual mice. Following scarification with 105 pfu, IHD-J-Luc VACV undergoes fast replication at the injection site and disseminates rapidly to the inguinal lymph nodes followed by spleen, liver, and axillary lymph nodes within 2-3 days and before primary lesions are visible at the site of scarification. Extension of survival in nude mice treated with a combination of anti-B5 and anti-L1 MAbs 24 h post challenge correlated with a significant reduction in viral load at the site of scarification and delayed systemic dissemination. Nude mice reconstituted with 104 T cells prior to challenge with IHD-J-Luc, and treated with MAbs post-challenge, survived infection, cleared the virus from all organs and scarification site, and developed anti-VACV IgG and VACV-specific polyfunctional CD8+ T cells that co-expressed the degranulation marker CD107a, and IFNγ and TNFα cytokines. All T cell reconstituted mice survived intranasal re-challenge with IHD-J-Luc (104 pfu) two months after the primary infection. Thus, using BLI to monitor VACV replication in a PV model, we showed that anti-VACV MAbs administered post challenge extended survival of nude mice and protected T cell reconstituted nude mice from lethality by reducing replication at the site of scarification and systemic dissemination of VACV.
Collapse
|
5
|
Kawakami Y, Ando T, Lee JR, Kim G, Kawakami Y, Nakasaki T, Nakasaki M, Matsumoto K, Choi YS, Kawakami T. Defective natural killer cell activity in a mouse model of eczema herpeticum. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2017; 139:997-1006.e10. [PMID: 27476888 PMCID: PMC5276800 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with atopic dermatitis (AD) are susceptible to several viruses, including herpes simplex virus (HSV). Some patients experience 1 or more episodes of a severe skin infection caused by HSV termed eczema herpeticum (EH). There are numerous mouse models of AD, but no established model exists for EH. OBJECTIVE We sought to establish and characterize a mouse model of EH. METHODS We infected AD-like skin lesions with HSV1 to induce severe skin lesions in a dermatitis-prone mouse strain of NC/Nga. Gene expression was investigated by using a microarray and quantitative PCR; antibody titers were measured by means of ELISA; and natural killer (NK) cell, cytotoxic T-cell, regulatory T-cell, and follicular helper T-cell populations were evaluated by using flow cytometry. The role of NK cells in HSV1-induced development of severe skin lesions was examined by means of depletion and adoptive transfer. RESULTS Inoculation of HSV1 induced severe erosive skin lesions in eczematous mice, which had an impaired skin barrier, but milder lesions in small numbers of normal mice. Eczematous mice exhibited lower NK cell activity but similar cytotoxic T-cell activity and humoral immune responses compared with normal mice. The role of NK cells in controlling HSV1-induced skin lesions was demonstrated by experiments depleting or transferring NK cells. CONCLUSION A murine model of EH with an impaired skin barrier was established in this study. We demonstrated a critical role of defective NK activities in the development of HSV1-induced severe skin lesions in eczematous mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Kawakami
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Tomoaki Ando
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif; Laboratory for Allergic Disease, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS), Yokohama, Japan
| | - Jong-Rok Lee
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Gisen Kim
- Division of Developmental Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Yu Kawakami
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Tae Nakasaki
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Manando Nakasaki
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Kenji Matsumoto
- Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Youn Soo Choi
- Division of Vaccine Development and Center for Infectious Disease, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif
| | - Toshiaki Kawakami
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, Calif; Laboratory for Allergic Disease, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS), Yokohama, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Matho MH, Schlossman A, Meng X, Benhnia MREI, Kaever T, Buller M, Doronin K, Parker S, Peters B, Crotty S, Xiang Y, Zajonc DM. Structural and Functional Characterization of Anti-A33 Antibodies Reveal a Potent Cross-Species Orthopoxviruses Neutralizer. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005148. [PMID: 26325270 PMCID: PMC4556652 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus A33 is an extracellular enveloped virus (EEV)-specific type II membrane glycoprotein that is essential for efficient EEV formation and long-range viral spread within the host. A33 is a target for neutralizing antibody responses against EEV. In this study, we produced seven murine anti-A33 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) by immunizing mice with live VACV, followed by boosting with the soluble A33 homodimeric ectodomain. Five A33 specific MAbs were capable of neutralizing EEV in the presence of complement. All MAbs bind to conformational epitopes on A33 but not to linear peptides. To identify the epitopes, we have adetermined the crystal structures of three representative neutralizing MAbs in complex with A33. We have further determined the binding kinetics for each of the three antibodies to wild-type A33, as well as to engineered A33 that contained single alanine substitutions within the epitopes of the three crystallized antibodies. While the Fab of both MAbs A2C7 and A20G2 binds to a single A33 subunit, the Fab from MAb A27D7 binds to both A33 subunits simultaneously. A27D7 binding is resistant to single alanine substitutions within the A33 epitope. A27D7 also demonstrated high-affinity binding with recombinant A33 protein that mimics other orthopoxvirus strains in the A27D7 epitope, such as ectromelia, monkeypox, and cowpox virus, suggesting that A27D7 is a potent cross-neutralizer. Finally, we confirmed that A27D7 protects mice against a lethal challenge with ectromelia virus.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/chemistry
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/genetics
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/chemistry
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/genetics
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/metabolism
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/therapeutic use
- Antibody Affinity
- Antibody Specificity
- Antigen-Antibody Complex/chemistry
- Antigen-Antibody Complex/genetics
- Antigen-Antibody Complex/metabolism
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- Female
- Immunoglobulin Fab Fragments/chemistry
- Immunoglobulin Fab Fragments/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Fab Fragments/metabolism
- Membrane Glycoproteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Models, Molecular
- Mutation
- Orthopoxvirus/immunology
- Orthopoxvirus/physiology
- Poxviridae Infections/immunology
- Poxviridae Infections/prevention & control
- Poxviridae Infections/virology
- Protein Conformation
- Recombinant Proteins/chemistry
- Recombinant Proteins/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/therapeutic use
- Vaccines, Synthetic/chemistry
- Vaccines, Synthetic/genetics
- Vaccines, Synthetic/metabolism
- Vaccines, Synthetic/therapeutic use
- Vero Cells
- Viral Envelope Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Viral Envelope Proteins/genetics
- Viral Envelope Proteins/metabolism
- Viral Tropism
- Viral Vaccines/chemistry
- Viral Vaccines/genetics
- Viral Vaccines/metabolism
- Viral Vaccines/therapeutic use
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael H. Matho
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Andrew Schlossman
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Xiangzhi Meng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Mohammed Rafii-El-Idrissi Benhnia
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Seville; and Laboratory of Immunovirology, Unit 211, Biomedicine Institute of Seville (IBIS), Seville, Spain
| | - Thomas Kaever
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Mark Buller
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Konstantin Doronin
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Scott Parker
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Bjoern Peters
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Shane Crotty
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Yan Xiang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Dirk M. Zajonc
- Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Protection of rabbits and immunodeficient mice against lethal poxvirus infections by human monoclonal antibodies. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48706. [PMID: 23133652 PMCID: PMC3487784 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Smallpox (variola virus) is a bioweapon concern. Monkeypox is a growing zoonotic poxvirus threat. These problems have resulted in extensive efforts to develop potential therapeutics that can prevent or treat potentially lethal poxvirus infections in humans. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against smallpox are a conservative approach to this problem, as the licensed human smallpox vaccine (vaccinia virus, VACV) primarily works on the basis of protective antibody responses against smallpox. Fully human mAbs (hmAbs) against vaccinia H3 (H3L) and B5 (B5R), targeting both the mature virion (MV) and extracellular enveloped virion (EV) forms, have been developed as potential therapeutics for use in humans. Post-exposure prophylaxis was assessed in both murine and rabbit animal models. Therapeutic efficacy of the mAbs was assessed in three good laboratory practices (GLP) studies examining severe combined immunodeficiency mice (SCID) given a lethal VACV infection. Pre-exposure combination hmAb therapy provided significantly better protection against disease and death than either single hmAb or vaccinia immune globulin (VIG). Post-exposure combination mAb therapy provided significant protection against disease and death, and appeared to fully cure the VACV infection in ≥50% of SCID mice. Therapeutic efficacy was then assessed in two rabbit studies examining post-exposure hmAb prophylaxis against rabbitpox (RPXV). In the first study, rabbits were infected with RPVX and then provided hmAbs at 48 hrs post-infection, or 1 hr and 72 hrs post-infection. Rabbits in both groups receiving hmAbs were 100% protected from death. In the second rabbitpox study, 100% of animal treated with combination hmAb therapy and 100% of animals treated with anti-B5 hmAb were protected. These findings suggest that combination hmAb treatment may be effective at controlling smallpox disease in immunocompetent or immunodeficient humans.
Collapse
|
8
|
Prichard MN, Kern ER. Orthopoxvirus targets for the development of new antiviral agents. Antiviral Res 2012; 94:111-25. [PMID: 22406470 PMCID: PMC3773844 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Investments in the development of new drugs for orthopoxvirus infections have fostered new avenues of research, provided an improved understanding of orthopoxvirus biology and yielded new therapies that are currently progressing through clinical trials. These broad-based efforts have also resulted in the identification of new inhibitors of orthopoxvirus replication that target many different stages of viral replication cycle. This review will discuss progress in the development of new anti-poxvirus drugs and the identification of new molecular targets that can be exploited for the development of new inhibitors. The prototype of the orthopoxvirus group is vaccinia virus and its replication cycle will be discussed in detail noting specific viral functions and their associated gene products that have the potential to serve as new targets for drug development. Progress that has been achieved in recent years should yield new drugs for the treatment of these infections and might also reveal new approaches for antiviral drug development with other viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark N Prichard
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233-1711, United States.
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Oyoshi MK, Ramesh N, Geha RS. Vaccinia Ig ameliorates eczema vaccinatum in a murine model of atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2011; 132:1299-301. [PMID: 22189790 PMCID: PMC3583535 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2011.409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
10
|
Sampath A, Metz M, Stundick M, Larsen JC. State-of-the-art therapeutic medical countermeasures for viral threat agents. Biosecur Bioterror 2011; 9:351-60. [PMID: 22053938 DOI: 10.1089/bsp.2011.0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increase in the perceived threat of biological agents being used against civilian populations. This has prompted an urgent need for the development and procurement of medical countermeasures (MCMs) against highly pathogenic viruses that can prevent morbidity and mortality from infections caused by these agents. To date, antiviral drug development has been largely focused on clinically prevalent chronic infections due to their commercial viability. This has left a huge gap in the drug development path for acute infections of biodefense importance. In this review, we discuss the antiviral research and development initiatives focusing specifically on poxviruses, filoviruses, and equine encephalitis viruses (EEV). We discuss the benefits and technical challenges in the current development strategies and the hurdles in the licensure path for MCMs against these highly pathogenic viruses under the FDA Animal Rule, and we provide recommendations for the path forward.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aruna Sampath
- Science Applications International Corporation, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|