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Jayewickreme R, Mao T, Philbrick W, Kong Y, Treger RS, Lu P, Rakib T, Dong H, Dang-Lawson M, Guild WA, Lau TJ, Iwasaki A, Tokuyama M. Endogenous Retroviruses Provide Protection Against Vaginal HSV-2 Disease. Front Immunol 2022; 12:758721. [PMID: 35058919 PMCID: PMC8764156 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.758721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are genomic sequences that originated from retroviruses and are present in most eukaryotic genomes. Both beneficial and detrimental functions are attributed to ERVs, but whether ERVs contribute to antiviral immunity is not well understood. Here, we used herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection as a model and found that Toll-like receptor 7 (Tlr7 -/-) deficient mice that have high systemic levels of infectious ERVs are protected from intravaginal HSV-2 infection and disease, compared to wildtype C57BL/6 mice. We deleted the endogenous ecotropic murine leukemia virus (Emv2) locus on the Tlr7 -/- background (Emv2 -/- Tlr7 -/-) and found that Emv2 -/- Tlr7 -/- mice lose protection against HSV-2 infection. Intravaginal application of purified ERVs from Tlr7-/- mice prior to HSV-2 infection delays disease in both wildtype and highly susceptible interferon-alpha receptor-deficient (Ifnar1- /-) mice. However, intravaginal ERV treatment did not protect Emv2-/-Tlr7-/- mice from HSV-2 disease, suggesting that the protective mechanism mediated by exogenous ERV treatment may differ from that of constitutively and systemically expressed ERVs in Tlr7-/- mice. We did not observe enhanced type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling in the vaginal tissues from Tlr7-/- mice, and instead found enrichment in genes associated with extracellular matrix organization. Together, our results revealed that constitutive and/or systemic expression of ERVs protect mice against vaginal HSV-2 infection and delay disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radeesha Jayewickreme
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Tianyang Mao
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - William Philbrick
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Yong Kong
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, W.M. Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Rebecca S Treger
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Peiwen Lu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Tasfia Rakib
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Huiping Dong
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - May Dang-Lawson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Life Sciences Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - W Austin Guild
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Life Sciences Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Tatiana J Lau
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Life Sciences Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Akiko Iwasaki
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
| | - Maria Tokuyama
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Life Sciences Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Zheng W, Xu Q, Zhang Y, E X, Gao W, Zhang M, Zhai W, Rajkumar RS, Liu Z. Toll-like receptor-mediated innate immunity against herpesviridae infection: a current perspective on viral infection signaling pathways. Virol J 2020; 17:192. [PMID: 33298111 PMCID: PMC7726878 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-020-01463-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the past decades, researchers have demonstrated the critical role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the innate immune system. They recognize viral components and trigger immune signal cascades to subsequently promote the activation of the immune system. Main body Herpesviridae family members trigger TLRs to elicit cytokines in the process of infection to activate antiviral innate immune responses in host cells. This review aims to clarify the role of TLRs in the innate immunity defense against herpesviridae, and systematically describes the processes of TLR actions and herpesviridae recognition as well as the signal transduction pathways involved. Conclusions Future studies of the interactions between TLRs and herpesviridae infections, especially the subsequent signaling pathways, will not only contribute to the planning of effective antiviral therapies but also provide new molecular targets for the development of antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjin Zheng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China
| | - Qing Xu
- School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China
| | - Yiyuan Zhang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China
| | - Xiaofei E
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Wei Gao
- Key Lab for Immunology in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China
| | - Mogen Zhang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China
| | - Weijie Zhai
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China
| | | | - Zhijun Liu
- Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, 261053, China.
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Intranasal nanoemulsion-adjuvanted HSV-2 subunit vaccine is effective as a prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine using the guinea pig model of genital herpes. Vaccine 2019; 37:6470-6477. [PMID: 31515143 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.08.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease representing a major global health concern. Currently, there is no approved vaccine and existing antiviral therapies exhibit limited efficacy. Herein, we describe an intranasal (IN) vaccine comprised of HSV-2 surface glycoproteins gD2 and gB2 formulated in a nanoemulsion adjuvant (NE01-gD2/gB2). Using the HSV-2 genital herpes guinea pig model, we demonstrate that IN NE01-gD2/gB2 induces higher levels of neutralizing antibody compared to a monovalent IN NE01-gD2 vaccine, but less than an intramuscular (IM) Alum/MPL-gD2 vaccine. Following intravaginal (IVag) challenge with HSV-2, the group immunized with IN NE01-gD2/gB2 exhibited significantly reduced acute and recurrent disease scores compared to placebo recipients. Significantly, latent virus was only detected in the dorsal root ganglia of 1 of 12 IN NE01-gD2/gB2-vaccinated animals compared to 11 of 12 placebo recipient. In the therapeutic model, IN NE01-gD2/gB2 immunized guinea pigs exhibited a significant reduction in the recurrent lesions scores (64%, p < 0.01), number of animal days with disease (64%, p < 0.01), number of animals with viral shedding (50%, p < 0.04) and reduction in virus positive vaginal swabs (56%, p < 0.04), These data suggests that the treatment may be effective in treating chronic disease and minimizing virus transmission. These results warrant advancing the development of IN NE01-gD2/gB2 as both a prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine against HSV-2.
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Jahanban‐Esfahlan R, Seidi K, Majidinia M, Karimian A, Yousefi B, Nabavi SM, Astani A, Berindan‐Neagoe I, Gulei D, Fallarino F, Gargaro M, Manni G, Pirro M, Xu S, Sadeghi M, Nabavi SF, Shirooie S. Toll‐like receptors as novel therapeutic targets for herpes simplex virus infection. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29:e2048. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rana Jahanban‐Esfahlan
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical SciencesTabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
- Drug Applied Research CenterTabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
| | - Khaled Seidi
- Immunology Research CenterTabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
| | - Maryam Majidinia
- Solid Tumor Research CenterUrmia University of Medical Sciences Urmia Iran
| | - Ansar Karimian
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research InstituteBabol University of Medical Sciences Babol Iran
| | - Bahman Yousefi
- Molecular Medicine Research CenterTabriz University of Medical Sciences Tabriz Iran
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of MedicineTabriz University of Medical Science Tabriz Iran
| | - Seyed Mohammad Nabavi
- Applied Biotechnology Research CenterBaqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Akram Astani
- Department of MicrobiologyShahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences Yazd Iran
| | - Ioana Berindan‐Neagoe
- MEDFUTURE ‐Research Center for Advanced Medicine“Iuliu‐Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca Romania
- Research Centerfor Functional Genomics, Biomedicine and Translational Medicine“Iuliu‐Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca Romania
- Department of Functional Genomics and Experimental PathologyThe Oncology Institute “Prof. Dr. Ion Chiricuţă” Cluj‐Napoca Romania
| | - Diana Gulei
- MEDFUTURE ‐Research Center for Advanced Medicine“Iuliu‐Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca Romania
| | | | - Marco Gargaro
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Perugia Italy
| | - Giorgia Manni
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Perugia Italy
| | - Matteo Pirro
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Perugia Italy
| | - Suowen Xu
- Aab Cardiovascular Research InstituteUniversity of Rochester Rochester NY USA
| | - Mahmoud Sadeghi
- Department of Transplantation ImmunologyUniversity of Heidelberg Heidelberg Germany
| | - Seyed Fazel Nabavi
- Applied Biotechnology Research CenterBaqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
| | - Samira Shirooie
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of PharmacyKermanshah University of Medical Sciences Kermanshah Iran
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Bernstein DI, Cardin RD, Pullum DA, Bravo FJ, Kousoulas KG, Dixon DA. Duration of protection from live attenuated vs. sub unit HSV-2 vaccines in the guinea pig model of genital herpes: Reassessing efficacy using endpoints from clinical trials. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0213401. [PMID: 30917165 PMCID: PMC6436793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although herpes simplex viruses (HSV) are a major target for vaccine development no vaccine is currently licensed. METHODS A live attenuated HSV virus vaccine, VC2 was compared to a subunit HSV vaccine, glycoprotein D (gD2) administered with the adjuvant, MPL/Alum using the guinea pig model of genital herpes. Three doses of intramuscular (IM) vaccine were provided followed by intravaginal challenge with HSV-2 at either 3 weeks or six months after the last vaccination. RESULTS Both VC2 and gD2 vaccines reduced acute genital disease. VC2 was somewhat more effective in reducing acute vaginal replication, the amount of virus in neural tissue, subsequent recurrent disease and recurrent virus shedding following challenge at 3 weeks post vaccination. Both vaccines continued to provide protection at 6 months after vaccination but the differences between the vaccines became more pronounced in favor of the live attenuated vaccine, VC2. Significant differences in acute disease, acute vaginal virus replication, recurrent disease and recurrent virus shedding (P<0.05 for each) was observed comparing the vaccines. Re-examination of protection for this study using criteria similar to those used in recent clinical trials (inclusion of recurrent disease) showed that efficacy may not be as high in this model as previously thought prompting a need to assess the best predictive outcomes for protection in humans. CONCLUSION While both the live attenuated vaccine, VC2, and the gD2 subunit vaccine provided protection, the duration of protection appeared to be greater for VC2. Using the same evaluation criteria as used in human trials provided unique insights into the utility of the guinea pig model.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I. Bernstein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Rhonda D. Cardin
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
| | - Derek A. Pullum
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Fernando J. Bravo
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Konstantin G. Kousoulas
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
| | - David A. Dixon
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
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6
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Wu TYH. Strategies for designing synthetic immune agonists. Immunology 2016; 148:315-25. [PMID: 27213842 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhancing the immune system is a validated strategy to combat infectious disease, cancer and allergy. Nevertheless, the development of immune adjuvants has been hampered by safety concerns. Agents that can stimulate the immune system often bear structural similarities with pathogen-associated molecular patterns found in bacteria or viruses and are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Activation of these PRRs results in the immediate release of inflammatory cytokines, up-regulation of co-stimulatory molecules, and recruitment of innate immune cells. The distribution and duration of these early inflammatory events are crucial in the development of antigen-specific adaptive immunity in the forms of antibody and/or T cells capable of searching for and destroying the infectious pathogens or cancer cells. However, systemic activation of these PRRs is often poorly tolerated. Hence, different strategies have been employed to modify or deliver immune agonists in an attempt to control the early innate receptor activation through temporal or spatial restriction. These approaches include physicochemical manipulation, covalent conjugation, formulation and conditional activation/deactivation. This review will describe recent examples of discovery and optimization of synthetic immune agonists towards clinical application.
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7
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Bernstein DI, Bravo FJ, Pullum DA, Shen H, Wang M, Rahman A, Glazer RI, Cardin RD. Efficacy of N-methanocarbathymidine against genital herpes simplex virus type 2 shedding and infection in guinea pigs. Antivir Chem Chemother 2016; 24:19-27. [PMID: 26149263 DOI: 10.1177/2040206614566581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current approved nucleoside therapies for genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are effective but improved therapies are needed for treatment of both acute and recurrent diseases. METHODS The effects of N-methanocarbathymidine were evaluated and compared to acyclovir using guinea pig models of acute and recurrent infection. For acute disease following intravaginal inoculation of 10(6 )pfu HSV-2 (MS strain), animals were treated intraperitoneally beginning 24 h post-infection, and the effects on disease severity, vaginal virus replication, subsequent recurrences, and latent virus loads were evaluated. For evaluation of recurrent infection, animals were treated for 21 days beginning 14 days after infection and disease recurrence and recurrent shedding were evaluated. RESULTS Treatment of the acute disease with N-methanocarbathymidine significantly reduced the severity of acute disease and decreased acute vaginal virus shedding more effectively than acyclovir. Significantly, none of the animals developed visible disease in the high-dose N-methanocarbathymidine group and this was the only group in which the number of days with recurrent virus shedding was reduced. Treatment of recurrent disease was equivalent to acyclovir when acyclovir was continuously supplied in the drinking water. CONCLUSION N-methanocarbathymidine was effective as therapy for acute and recurrent genital HSV-2 disease in the guinea pig models.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Bernstein
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Fernando J Bravo
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Derek A Pullum
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Hui Shen
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Mei Wang
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Rhonda D Cardin
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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8
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Hill JM, Quenelle DC, Cardin RD, Vogel JL, Clement C, Bravo FJ, Foster TP, Bosch-Marce M, Raja P, Lee JS, Bernstein DI, Krause PR, Knipe DM, Kristie TM. Inhibition of LSD1 reduces herpesvirus infection, shedding, and recurrence by promoting epigenetic suppression of viral genomes. Sci Transl Med 2014; 6:265ra169. [PMID: 25473037 PMCID: PMC4416407 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3010643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Herpesviruses are highly prevalent and maintain lifelong latent reservoirs, thus posing challenges to the control of herpetic disease despite the availability of antiviral pharmaceuticals that target viral DNA replication. The initiation of herpes simplex virus infection and reactivation from latency is dependent on a transcriptional coactivator complex that contains two required histone demethylases, LSD1 (lysine-specific demethylase 1) and a member of the JMJD2 family (Jumonji C domain-containing protein 2). Inhibition of either of these enzymes results in heterochromatic suppression of the viral genome and blocks infection and reactivation in vitro. We demonstrate that viral infection can be epigenetically suppressed in three animal models of herpes simplex virus infection and disease. Treating animals with the monoamine oxidase inhibitor tranylcypromine to inhibit LSD1 suppressed viral lytic infection, subclinical shedding, and reactivation from latency in vivo. This phenotypic suppression was correlated with enhanced epigenetic suppression of the viral genome and suggests that, even during latency, the chromatin state of the virus is dynamic. Therefore, epi-pharmaceuticals may represent a promising approach to treat herpetic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Hill
- Department of Ophthalmology and Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, LSU Eye Center, Louisiana State University Health Science Center School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Debra C Quenelle
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Rhonda D Cardin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Jodi L Vogel
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Christian Clement
- Department of Ophthalmology and Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, LSU Eye Center, Louisiana State University Health Science Center School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Fernando J Bravo
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Timothy P Foster
- Department of Ophthalmology and Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, LSU Eye Center, Louisiana State University Health Science Center School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Marta Bosch-Marce
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
| | - Priya Raja
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jennifer S Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - David I Bernstein
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Philip R Krause
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
| | - David M Knipe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Thomas M Kristie
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Kallen KJ, Theß A. A development that may evolve into a revolution in medicine: mRNA as the basis for novel, nucleotide-based vaccines and drugs. THERAPEUTIC ADVANCES IN VACCINES 2014; 2:10-31. [PMID: 24757523 DOI: 10.1177/2051013613508729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances strongly suggest that mRNA rather than DNA will be the nucleotide basis for a new class of vaccines and drugs. Therapeutic cancer vaccines against a variety of targets have been developed on this basis and initial clinical experience suggests that preclinical activity can be successfully translated to human application. Likewise, prophylactic vaccines against viral pathogens and allergens have demonstrated their activity in animal models. These successes could be extended preclinically to mRNA protein and gene replacement therapy as well as the induction of pluripotent stem cells by mRNA encoded transcription factors. The production of mRNA-based vaccines and drugs is highly flexible, scalable and cost competitive, and eliminates the requirement of a cold chain. mRNA-based drugs and vaccines offer all the advantages of a nucleotide-based approach at reduced costs and represent a truly disruptive technology that may start a revolution in medicine.
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