Effects of astaxanthin on the protection of muscle health (Review)

Mitochondrial dysfunction: roles in skeletal muscle atrophy

Mitochondria play important roles in maintaining cellular homeostasis and skeletal muscle health, and damage to mitochondria can lead to a series of pathophysiological changes. Mitochondrial dysfunction can lead to skeletal muscle atrophy, and its molecular mechanism leading to skeletal muscle atrophy is complex. Understanding the pathogenesis of mitochondrial dysfunction is useful for the prevention and treatment of skeletal muscle atrophy, and finding drugs and methods to target and modulate mitochondrial function are urgent tasks in the prevention and treatment of skeletal muscle atrophy. In this review, we first discussed the roles of normal mitochondria in skeletal muscle. Importantly, we described the effect of mitochondrial dysfunction on skeletal muscle atrophy and the molecular mechanisms involved. Furthermore, the regulatory roles of different signaling pathways (AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α, IGF-1-PI3K-Akt-mTOR, FoxOs, JAK-STAT3, TGF-β-Smad2/3 and NF-κB pathways, etc.) and the roles of mitochondrial factors were investigated in mitochondrial dysfunction. Next, we analyzed the manifestations of mitochondrial dysfunction in muscle atrophy caused by different diseases. Finally, we summarized the preventive and therapeutic effects of targeted regulation of mitochondrial function on skeletal muscle atrophy, including drug therapy, exercise and diet, gene therapy, stem cell therapy and physical therapy. This review is of great significance for the holistic understanding of the important role of mitochondria in skeletal muscle, which is helpful for researchers to further understanding the molecular regulatory mechanism of skeletal muscle atrophy, and has an important inspiring role for the development of therapeutic strategies for muscle atrophy targeting mitochondria in the future.

Dietary astaxanthin (Lucantin® Pink) mitigated oxidative stress induced by diazinon in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

The potential of commercial astaxanthin on growth, biochemical factors, and antioxidant-related gene expression following a challenge with diazinon were studied in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish (~ 20.70 g) were fed diets containing commercial astaxanthin (ASX) at 0.00 (CTR and ASX0), 0.50 (ASX1), 2.00 (ASX2), and 5.00 (ASX3) g kg^-1 for 60 days. Afterwards, the treated fish (ASX1, ASX2, ASX3) as well as the fish in ASX0 group were challenged with diazinon (0.11 mg L^-1) for 96 hr whereas fish in the CTR group was not challenged with diazinon. Results showed that growth pattern improved significantly with all enriched diets compared to the ASX0 group. Metabolic enzyme activities, including alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase decreased in ASX2 and ASX3 groups with respect to the ASX0 group. Serum antioxidant status also showed the same pattern with enhancement in the fish fed with the ASX2 and ASX3 supplemented diets. Feeding the fish with astaxanthin, particularly in the ASX3 group, up-regulated the expression of some antioxidant-relevant genes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) in the kidney and liver. Besides, the histopathological damages in kidneys and liver induced by diazinon were less pronounced in the ASX2 and ASX3 groups compared to the ASX0 group. In conclusion, commercial astaxanthin, especially at 5.00 g kg^-1, enhanced the growth performance and ameliorated the oxidative stress induced by diazinon in rainbow trout.

Astaxanthin as a Potential Antioxidant to Improve Health and Production Performance of Broiler Chicken

Recent interest in carotenoids has increased due to their antioxidant and production performance. Astaxanthin (AST) is a xanthophyll carotenoid abundantly distributed in microalgae, which is described as a highly potent antioxidant. Therefore, recent studies have tended to investigate the role of antioxidants in improving metabolic processes and physiological functioning of the body. It is now evident that AST could significantly reduce free radicals and oxidative stress and help to maintain a healthy state. Moreover, AST also could improve the performance of broiler chicken by increasing the daily feed intake, followed by improvement in the food conversion rate.

Astaxanthin from Crustaceans and Their Byproducts: A Bioactive Metabolite Candidate for Therapeutic Application

In recent years, the food, pharma, and cosmetic industries have shown considerable interest in bioactive molecules of marine origin that show high potential for application as nutraceuticals and therapeutic agents. Astaxanthin, a lipid-soluble and orange-reddish-colored carotenoid pigment, is one of the most investigated pigments. Natural astaxanthin is mainly produced from microalgae, and it shows much stronger antioxidant properties than its synthetic counterpart. This paper aims to summarize and discuss the important aspects and recent findings associated with the possible use of crustacean byproducts as a source of astaxanthin. In the last five years of research on the crustaceans and their byproducts as a source of natural astaxanthin, there are many new findings regarding the astaxanthin content in different species and new green extraction protocols for its extraction. However, there is a lack of information on the amounts of astaxanthin currently obtained from the byproducts as well as on the cost-effectiveness of the astaxanthin production from the byproducts. Improvement in these areas would most certainly contribute to the reduction of waste and reuse in the crustacean processing industry. Successful exploitation of byproducts for recovery of this valuable compound would have both environmental and social benefits. Finally, astaxanthin’s strong biological activity and prominent health benefits have been discussed in the paper.

Assessing the Potential of Nutraceuticals as Geroprotectors on Muscle Performance and Cognition in Aging Mice

Aging and frailty are associated with a decline in muscle force generation, which is a direct consequence of reduced muscle quantity and quality. Among the leading contributors to aging is the generation of reactive oxygen species, the byproducts of terminal oxidation. Their negative effects can be moderated via antioxidant supplementation. Krill oil and astaxanthin (AX) are nutraceuticals with a variety of health promoting, geroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-fatigue effects. In this work, we examined the functional effects of these two nutraceutical agents supplemented via pelleted chow in aging mice by examining in vivo and in vitro skeletal muscle function, along with aspects of intracellular and mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, as well as cognition and spatial memory. AX diet regimen limited weight gain compared to the control group; however, this phenomenon was not accompanied by muscle tissue mass decline. On the other hand, both AX and krill oil supplementation increased force production without altering calcium homeostasis during excitation-contraction coupling mechanism or mitochondrial calcium uptake processes. We also provide evidence of improved spatial memory and learning ability in aging mice because of krill oil supplementation. Taken together, our data favors the application of antioxidant nutraceuticals as geroprotectors to improve cognition and healthy aging by virtue of improved skeletal muscle force production.

On a Beam of Light: Photoprotective Activities of the Marine Carotenoids Astaxanthin and Fucoxanthin in Suppression of Inflammation and Cancer

Every day, we come into contact with ultraviolet radiation (UVR). If under medical supervision, small amounts of UVR could be beneficial, the detrimental and hazardous effects of UVR exposure dictate an unbalance towards the risks on the risk-benefit ratio. Acute and chronic effects of ultraviolet-A and ultraviolet-B involve mainly the skin, the immune system, and the eyes. Photodamage is an umbrella term that includes general phototoxicity, photoaging, and cancer caused by UVR. All these phenomena are mediated by direct or indirect oxidative stress and inflammation and are strictly connected one to the other. Astaxanthin (ASX) and fucoxanthin (FX) are peculiar marine carotenoids characterized by outstanding antioxidant properties. In particular, ASX showed exceptional efficacy in counteracting all categories of photodamages, in vitro and in vivo, thanks to both antioxidant potential and activation of alternative pathways. Less evidence has been produced about FX, but it still represents an interesting promise to prevent the detrimental effect of UVR. Altogether, these results highlight the importance of digging into the marine ecosystem to look for new compounds that could be beneficial for human health and confirm that the marine environment is as much as full of active compounds as the terrestrial one, it just needs to be more explored.