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Sesarman A, Luput L, Rauca VF, Patras L, Licarete E, Meszaros MS, Dume BR, Negrea G, Toma VA, Muntean D, Porfire A, Banciu M. Targeting of M2 macrophages with IL-13-functionalized liposomal prednisolone inhibits melanoma angiogenesis in vivo. J Liposome Res 2024:1-12. [PMID: 38379249 DOI: 10.1080/08982104.2024.2315452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
The intricate cooperation between cancer cells and nontumor stromal cells within melanoma microenvironment (MME) enables tumor progression and metastasis. We previously demonstrated that the interplay between tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and melanoma cells can be disrupted by using long-circulating liposomes (LCLs) encapsulating prednisolone phosphate (PLP) (LCL-PLP) that inhibited tumor angiogenesis coordinated by TAMs. In this study, our goal was to improve LCL specificity for protumor macrophages (M2-like (i.e., TAMs) macrophages) and to induce a more precise accumulation at tumor site by loading PLP into IL-13-conjugated liposomes (IL-13-LCL-PLP), since IL-13 receptor is overexpressed in this type of macrophages. The IL-13-LCL-PLP liposomal formulation was obtained by covalent attachment of thiolated IL-13 to maleimide-functionalized LCL-PLP. C57BL/6 mice bearing B16.F10 s.c melanoma tumors were used to investigate the antitumor action of LCL-PLP and IL-13-LCL-PLP. Our results showed that IL-13-LCL-PLP formulation remained stable in biological fluids after 24h and it was preferentially taken up by M2 polarized macrophages. IL-13-LCL-PLP induced strong tumor growth inhibition compared to nonfunctionalized LCL-PLP at the same dose, by altering TAMs-mediated angiogenesis and oxidative stress, limiting resistance to apoptosis and invasive features in MME. These findings suggest IL-13-LCL-PLP might become a promising delivery platform for chemotherapeutic agents in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Sesarman
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Lavinia Luput
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Valentin-Florian Rauca
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Laura Patras
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Emilia Licarete
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Molecular Biology Centre, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Bio-Nano-Sciences of Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Marta-Szilvia Meszaros
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Bogdan Razvan Dume
- Doctoral School in Integrative Biology, Faculty of Biology and Geology, "Babes-Bolyai" University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Giorgiana Negrea
- Doctoral School in Integrative Biology, Faculty of Biology and Geology, "Babes-Bolyai" University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Vlad-Alexandru Toma
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Experimental Biology and Biochemistry, nstitute of Biological Research, branch of NIRDBS Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Dana Muntean
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hatieganu", Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Alina Porfire
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hatieganu", Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Manuela Banciu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, and Center of Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Marchi MD, Moggio EL, Luz JZD, Brito PM, Sandri S, Farsky SHP, Biscaia SMP, Filipak Neto F, Oliveira Ribeiro CAD. BDE-209 exposure in murine melanoma (B16-F1) cells modulates tumor malignancy and progression in vivo. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 184:114350. [PMID: 38097007 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma is a type of skin cancer considered aggressive due to its high metastatic ability and rapid progression to other tissues and organs. BDE-209 (2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6,6'-decabromodiphenyl ether) is an additive used as a flame retardant and classified as a persistent organic pollutant that has a high bioaccumulation capacity due to its lipophilic nature. This substance has already been detected in rivers, air, soil, plants and even in different human biological samples, such as plasma, umbilical cord blood and breast milk, revealing a great concern to human populations. Thus, in the current study we investigated whether prior exposure of murine melanoma B16-F1 cells to BDE-209 modulates in vivo progression and malignancy of melanoma. B16-F1 cells were cultured and exposed in vitro to BDE-209 (0.01, 0.1 e 1 nM) for 15 days and then inoculated, via caudal vein, in C57BL/6 mice for experimental metastasis analysis after 20 days. Inoculation of BDE-209-exposed cells resulted in 82% increase of metastasis colonized area in the lungs of mice, downregulation of tumor suppressors genes, such as Timp3 and Reck, decrease of lipid peroxidation and increase of systemic and local inflammatory response. These findings are related to melanoma progression. Additionally, the histopathological analysis revealed greater number of focal points of metastases in the lungs and invasiveness of metastases to the mice brain (89%). The results showed that exposure to BDE-209 may alter the phenotype of B16-F1 cells, worsening their metastatic profile. Current data showed that BDE-209 may interfere with the prognosis of melanoma by modulating cells with less invasiveness capacity to a more aggressive profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micheli de Marchi
- Laboratory of Cell Toxicology, Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81.531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Erick Laurent Moggio
- Laboratory of Cell Toxicology, Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81.531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Jessica Zablocki da Luz
- Laboratory of Cell Toxicology, Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81.531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | - Silvana Sandri
- Department of Clinical Chemistry & Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, CEP 05.508-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sandra Helena Poliselli Farsky
- Department of Clinical Chemistry & Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, CEP 05.508-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Stellee Marcela Petris Biscaia
- Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81.531-980, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Francisco Filipak Neto
- Laboratory of Cell Toxicology, Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81.531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Ciro Alberto de Oliveira Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Cell Toxicology, Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81.531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
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Asai Y, Yanagawa N, Osakabe M, Yamada N, Sugimoto R, Sato A, Ito K, Koike Y, Tanji T, Sakuraba M, Sato T, Sugai T. The clinicopathological impact of tumor-associated macrophages in patients with cutaneous malignant melanoma. J Surg Oncol 2024; 129:381-391. [PMID: 37916518 DOI: 10.1002/jso.27487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an immune component of the cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) microenvironment and affect tumor growth. TAMs can polarize into different phenotypes, that is, proinflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages. However, the role of the macrophage phenotype in CMM remains unclear. METHODS We examined 88 patients with CMM. Tissue microarrays were constructed, and the density of M1 and M2 macrophages was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Immune cells coexpressing CD68 and phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (pSTAT1) were considered M1 macrophages, whereas those coexpressing CD68 and c-macrophage activating factor (c-Maf) were defined as M2 macrophages. These TAMs were counted, and the relationships between the density of M1 and M2 macrophages and clinicopathological factors including prognosis were investigated. RESULTS The CD68/c-Maf score ranged from 0 to 34 (median: 5.5). The patients were divided based on the median score into the CD68/c-Maf high (≥5.5) and low (<5.5) expression groups. Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that CD68/c-Maf expression was an independent predictive factor for progression-free survival and an independent prognostic factor for overall survival. CD68/pSTAT1 expression was found in only two patients. CONCLUSION We suggest that CD68/pSTAT1 coexpression is rarely observed in patients with CMM, and high CD68/c-Maf expression is a predictor of worse prognosis in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinari Asai
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
- Department of Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Naoki Yanagawa
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Mitsumasa Osakabe
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Yamada
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Ryo Sugimoto
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Ayaka Sato
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Ito
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Koike
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Takayuki Tanji
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Minoru Sakuraba
- Department of Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Takashi Sato
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
| | - Tamotsu Sugai
- Department of Molecular Diagnostic Pathology, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun, Japan
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Cornice J, Verzella D, Arboretto P, Vecchiotti D, Capece D, Zazzeroni F, Franzoso G. NF-κB: Governing Macrophages in Cancer. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:197. [PMID: 38397187 PMCID: PMC10888451 DOI: 10.3390/genes15020197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the major component of the tumor microenvironment (TME), where they sustain tumor progression and or-tumor immunity. Due to their plasticity, macrophages can exhibit anti- or pro-tumor functions through the expression of different gene sets leading to distinct macrophage phenotypes: M1-like or pro-inflammatory and M2-like or anti-inflammatory. NF-κB transcription factors are central regulators of TAMs in cancers, where they often drive macrophage polarization toward an M2-like phenotype. Therefore, the NF-κB pathway is an attractive therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy in a wide range of human tumors. Hence, targeting NF-κB pathway in the myeloid compartment is a potential clinical strategy to overcome microenvironment-induced immunosuppression and increase anti-tumor immunity. In this review, we discuss the role of NF-κB as a key driver of macrophage functions in tumors as well as the principal strategies to overcome tumor immunosuppression by targeting the NF-κB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Cornice
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK; (J.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Daniela Verzella
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (D.V.); (D.C.); (F.Z.)
| | - Paola Arboretto
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK; (J.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Davide Vecchiotti
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (D.V.); (D.C.); (F.Z.)
| | - Daria Capece
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (D.V.); (D.C.); (F.Z.)
| | - Francesca Zazzeroni
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (D.V.); (D.C.); (F.Z.)
| | - Guido Franzoso
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK; (J.C.); (P.A.)
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Shao S, Miao H, Ma W. Unraveling the enigma of tumor-associated macrophages: challenges, innovations, and the path to therapeutic breakthroughs. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1295684. [PMID: 38035068 PMCID: PMC10682717 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1295684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are integral to the tumor microenvironment (TME), influencing cancer progression significantly. Attracted by cancer cell signals, TAMs exhibit unparalleled adaptability, aligning with the dynamic tumor milieu. Their roles span from promoting tumor growth and angiogenesis to modulating metastasis. While substantial research has explored the fundamentals of TAMs, comprehending their adaptive behavior, and leveraging it for novel treatments remains challenging. This review delves into TAM polarization, metabolic shifts, and the complex orchestration of cytokines and chemokines determining their functions. We highlight the complexities of TAM-targeted research focusing on their adaptability and potential variability in therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, we discuss the synergy of integrating TAM-focused strategies with established cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Emphasis is laid on pioneering methods like TAM reprogramming for cancer immunotherapy and the adoption of single-cell technologies for precision intervention. This synthesis seeks to shed light on TAMs' multifaceted roles in cancer, pinpointing prospective pathways for transformative research and enhancing therapeutic modalities in oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengwen Shao
- Clinical Research Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
| | - Huilai Miao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Liaobu Hospital of Dongguan City, Dongguan, Guangdong, China
| | - Wenxue Ma
- Department of Medicine, Moores Cancer Center, and Sanford Stem Cell Institute, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Gosman LM, Țăpoi DA, Costache M. Cutaneous Melanoma: A Review of Multifactorial Pathogenesis, Immunohistochemistry, and Emerging Biomarkers for Early Detection and Management. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15881. [PMID: 37958863 PMCID: PMC10650804 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous melanoma (CM) is an increasingly significant public health concern. Due to alarming mortality rates and escalating incidence, it is crucial to understand its etiology and identify emerging biomarkers for improved diagnosis and treatment strategies. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the multifactorial etiology of CM, underscore the importance of early detection, discuss the molecular mechanisms behind melanoma development and progression, and shed light on the role of the potential biomarkers in diagnosis and treatment. The pathogenesis of CM involves a complex interplay of genetic predispositions and environmental exposures, ultraviolet radiation exposure being the predominant environmental risk factor. The emergence of new biomarkers, such as novel immunohistochemical markers, gene mutation analysis, microRNA, and exosome protein expressions, holds promise for improved early detection, and prognostic and personalized therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Maria Gosman
- Doctoral School, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania;
- Department of Pathology, Saint Pantelimon Clinical Emergency Hospital, 021659 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Dana-Antonia Țăpoi
- Department of Pathology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania;
- Department of Pathology, University Emergency Hospital, 050098 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Mariana Costache
- Department of Pathology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania;
- Department of Pathology, University Emergency Hospital, 050098 Bucharest, Romania
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Kontoghiorghes GJ. Iron Load Toxicity in Medicine: From Molecular and Cellular Aspects to Clinical Implications. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12928. [PMID: 37629109 PMCID: PMC10454416 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241612928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is essential for all organisms and cells. Diseases of iron imbalance affect billions of patients, including those with iron overload and other forms of iron toxicity. Excess iron load is an adverse prognostic factor for all diseases and can cause serious organ damage and fatalities following chronic red blood cell transfusions in patients of many conditions, including hemoglobinopathies, myelodyspasia, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Similar toxicity of excess body iron load but at a slower rate of disease progression is found in idiopathic haemochromatosis patients. Excess iron deposition in different regions of the brain with suspected toxicity has been identified by MRI T2* and similar methods in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Based on its role as the major biological catalyst of free radical reactions and the Fenton reaction, iron has also been implicated in all diseases associated with free radical pathology and tissue damage. Furthermore, the recent discovery of ferroptosis, which is a cell death program based on free radical generation by iron and cell membrane lipid oxidation, sparked thousands of investigations and the association of iron with cardiac, kidney, liver, and many other diseases, including cancer and infections. The toxicity implications of iron in a labile, non-protein bound form and its complexes with dietary molecules such as vitamin C and drugs such as doxorubicin and other xenobiotic molecules in relation to carcinogenesis and other forms of toxicity are also discussed. In each case and form of iron toxicity, the mechanistic insights, diagnostic criteria, and molecular interactions are essential for the design of new and effective therapeutic interventions and of future targeted therapeutic strategies. In particular, this approach has been successful for the treatment of most iron loading conditions and especially for the transition of thalassemia from a fatal to a chronic disease due to new therapeutic protocols resulting in the complete elimination of iron overload and of iron toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- George J Kontoghiorghes
- Postgraduate Research Institute of Science, Technology, Environment and Medicine, 3, Ammochostou Street, Limassol 3021, Cyprus
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New Iron Metabolic Pathways and Chelation Targeting Strategies Affecting the Treatment of All Types and Stages of Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213990. [PMID: 36430469 PMCID: PMC9696688 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There is new and increasing evidence from in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies implicating the pivotal role of iron and associated metabolic pathways in the initiation, progression and development of cancer and in cancer metastasis. New metabolic and toxicity mechanisms and pathways, as well as genomic, transcription and other factors, have been linked to cancer and many are related to iron. Accordingly, a number of new targets for iron chelators have been identified and characterized in new anticancer strategies, in addition to the classical restriction of/reduction in iron supply, the inhibition of transferrin iron delivery, the inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase in DNA synthesis and high antioxidant potential. The new targets include the removal of excess iron from iron-laden macrophages, which affects anticancer activity; the modulation of ferroptosis; ferritin iron removal and the control of hyperferritinemia; the inhibition of hypoxia related to the role of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF); modulation of the function of new molecular species such as STEAP4 metalloreductase and the metastasis suppressor N-MYC downstream-regulated gene-1 (NDRG1); modulation of the metabolic pathways of oxidative stress damage affecting mitochondrial function, etc. Many of these new, but also previously known associated iron metabolic pathways appear to affect all stages of cancer, as well as metastasis and drug resistance. Iron-chelating drugs and especially deferiprone (L1), has been shown in many recent studies to fulfill the role of multi-target anticancer drug linked to the above and also other iron targets, and has been proposed for phase II trials in cancer patients. In contrast, lipophilic chelators and their iron complexes are proposed for the induction of ferroptosis in some refractory or recurring tumors in drug resistance and metastasis where effective treatments are absent. There is a need to readdress cancer therapy and include therapeutic strategies targeting multifactorial processes, including the application of multi-targeting drugs involving iron chelators and iron-chelator complexes. New therapeutic protocols including drug combinations with L1 and other chelating drugs could increase anticancer activity, decrease drug resistance and metastasis, improve treatments, reduce toxicity and increase overall survival in cancer patients.
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