Endothelial NO synthase and reactive oxygen species mediated effect of simvastatin on vessel structure and function: Pleiotropic and dose-dependent effect on tumor vascular stabilization

ROS impairs tumor vasculature normalization through an endocytosis effect of caveolae on extracellular SPARC

BACKGROUND

The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tumor microenvironment (TME) is an important player for tumorigenesis and progression. We aimed to explore the outcomes of ROS on tumor vessels and the potential regulated mechanisms.

METHODS

Exogenous H₂O₂ was adopted to simulate the ROS setting. Immunofluorescence staining and ultrasonography were used to assess the vascular endothelial coverage and perfusions in the tumors inoculated with Lewis lung cancer (LLC) and melanoma (B16F10) cells of C57BL/6 mice, respectively. ELISA and western-blot were used to detect the expression of secreted acidic and cysteine-rich protein (SPARC) and Caveale-1 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) extra- and intracellularly. Intracellular translocation of SPARC was observed using electron microscopy and immunofluorescence approaches.

RESULT

Under the context of oxidative stress, the pericyte recruitment of neovascularization in mouse lung cancer and melanoma tissues would be aberrated, which subsequently led to the disruption of the tumor vascular architecture and perfusion dysfunction. In vitro, HUVEC extracellularly SPARC was down-regulated, whereas intracellularly it was up-regulated. By electron microscopy and immunofluorescence staining, we observed that SPARC might undergo transmembrane transport via caveale-1-mediated endocytosis. Finally, the binding of SPARC to phosphorylated-caveale-1 was also detected in B16F10 tissues.

CONCLUSION

In the oxidative stress environment, neovascularization within the tumor occurs structural deterioration and decreased perfusion capacity. One of the main regulatory mechanisms is the migration of extracellular SPARC from the endothelium to intracellular compartments via Caveolin-1 carriers.

JMJD3 Is Required for Acute Pancreatitis and Pancreatitis-Associated Lung Injury

Acute pancreatitis (AP) can be complicated by inflammatory disorders of remote organs, such as lung injury, in which Jumonji domain-containing protein 3 (JMJD3) plays a vital role in proinflammatory responses. Currently, we found that JMJD3 expression was upregulated in the pancreas and lung in an AP male mouse model, which was also confirmed in AP patients. Further experiments revealed that the upregulation of JMJD3 and proinflammatory effects were possibly exerted by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or oxidized-mtDNA from tissue injury caused by AP. The release of mtDNA and oxidized-mtDNA contributed to the infiltration of inflammatory monocytes in lung injury through the stimulator of IFN genes (STING)/TLR9-NF-κB-JMJD3-TNF-α pathway. The inhibition of JMJD3 or utilization of Jmjd3-cKO mice significantly alleviated pulmonary inflammation induced by AP. Blocking mtDNA oxidation or knocking down the TLR9/STING pathway effectively alleviated inflammation. Therefore, inhibition of JMJD3 or STING/TLR9 pathway blockage might be a potential therapeutic strategy to treat AP and the associated lung injury.

Effect of Statins on Clinical Outcomes in Patients With Coronary Artery Spasm: A Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to assess the effect of statins on major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) related to coronary artery spasm (CAS) and to evaluate the effectiveness of statins in patients with CAS.

METHODS

A systematic search of electronic databases, including Google Scholar, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and PubMed, was conducted. These studies were all published in English, and the databases were searched from inception to July 2021. All articles were evaluated independently by 2 researchers on the basis of inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the research, data about the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events in CAS patients undergoing statin therapy was included and divided into different subgroups. A random effects model was conducted to synthesize the data.

FINDINGS

Five cohort studies were included in the analysis. These results indicated that statins failed to reduce the incidence of stroke in patients with CAS in general. However, subgroup analysis revealed that statins were more effective in improving outcomes for CAS patients without severe coronary stenosis compared with those with severe coronary stenosis.

IMPLICATIONS

Statins may have a potential benefit in patients with CAS who do not have coronary stenosis. To investigate these findings further, future prospective, randomized controlled research will be required.

Simvastatin cardioprotection in cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity via the modulation of inflammasome/caspase1/interleukin1β pathway

Drug-induced cardiotoxicity is a serious adverse effect that occurs during the administration of chemotherapeutic agents such as cyclophosphamide (CYC). Therefore, there is a critical need to find cardioprotective agents to keep the heart healthy. The current study aimed to investigate the protective effect of simvastatin (SIM) against CYC-induced heart damage and evaluate different mechanisms involved in mediating this effect, including the inflammasome/caspase1/interleukin1β (IL1β) pathway and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). 36 rats were randomly assigned to one of four groups: a control group that received only vehicles, a CYC group that received CYC (150 mg/kg/day) i.p. on the fourth and fifth days, a CYC+SIM group that received SIM (10 mg/kg/day) orally for 5 days and CYC (150 mg/kg/day) i.p. on the fourth and fifth days, and a CYC+SIM+ Nitro- ω-L-arginine (L-NNA) group that received L-NNA (25 mg/kg/day, SIM (10 mg/kg/day) orally for 5 days and CYC (150 mg/kg/day) i.p. on the 4th and 5th days. The CYC group revealed an obvious elevation in cardiac enzymes and heart weights with toxic histopathological changes. Moreover, there was an increase in malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) levels, and up-regulation of the NLRP3inflammasome/caspase1/IL1β pathway. In addition, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), eNOS, reduced glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) significantly decreased. CYC-induced cardiotoxicity was most properly reversed by SIM through its anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic actions with the stimulation of eNOS. The co-administration of L-NNA diminished the protective effect of SIM, indicating the essential role of eNOS in mediating this effect. Therefore, SIM ameliorated CYC-induced cardiotoxicity.

Upregulation of AQP4 Improves Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity and Perihematomal Edema Following Intracerebral Hemorrhage

In intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), delayed secondary neural damages largely occur from perihematomal edema (PHE) resulting from the disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). PHE is often considered the principal cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with ICH. Nevertheless, the main cellular mechanism as well as the specific BBB component involved in the formation of PHE after ICH remains elusive. Herein, we evaluated the role of AQP4, a water channel expressed on the astrocytes of the BBB, in the formation of PHE in ICH. The static and dynamic functions of the BBB were evaluated by analyzing the microstructure and leakage assay. Protein changes in the PHE lesion were analyzed and the control mechanism of AQP4 expression by reactive oxygen species was also investigated. Delayed PHE formation due to BBB disruption after ICH was confirmed by the decreased coverage of multiple BBB components and increased dynamic leakages. Microstructure assay showed that among the BBB components, AQP4 showed a markedly decreased expression in the PHE lesions. The decrease in AQP4 was due to microenvironmental ROS derived from the hemorrhage and was restored by treatment with ROS scavenger. AQP4-deficient mice had significantly larger PHE lesions and unfavorable survival outcomes compared with wild-type mice. Our data identify AQP4 as a specific BBB-modulating target for alleviating PHE in ICH. Further comprehensive studies are needed to form the preclinical basis for the use of AQP4 enhancers as BBB modulators for preventing delayed cerebral edema after ICH.

Hypoxia-Mediated ROS Amplification Triggers Mitochondria-Mediated Apoptotic Cell Death via PD-L1/ROS-Responsive, Dual-Targeted, Drug-Laden Thioketal Nanoparticles

Amalgamation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive stimulus with nanoparticles has gained considerable interest owing to their high tumor specificity. Hypoxia plays a pivotal role in the acceleration of intracellular ROS production. Herein, we report the construction of a cancer cell (PD-L1)- and ROS-responsive, dual-targeted, temozolomide (TMZ)-laden nanosystem which offers a better anticancer effect in a hypoxic tumor microenvironment. A dual-targeted system boosted permeation in the cancer cells. Hypoxic conditions elevating the high ROS level accelerated the in situ release of TMZ from anti-PD-L1-TKNPs. Hyperaccumulated ROS engendered from TMZ caused oxidative damage leading to mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. TMZ fabricated in the multifunctional nanosystem (anti-PD-L1-TMZ-TKNPs) provided excellent tumor accumulation and retarded tumor growth under in vivo conditions. The elevated apoptosis effect with the activation of an apoptotic marker, DNA double-strand breakage marker, and downregulation of the angiogenesis marker in the tumor tissue following treatment with anti-PD-L1-TMZ-TKNPs exerts robust anticancer effect. Collectively, the nanoconstruct offers deep tumor permeation and high drug release and broadens the application of the ROS-responsive nanosystem for a successful anticancer effect.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Cardiotoxicity Induced by HER2, VEGF, and Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors: an Updated Review

AIM

In recent decades, there has been a revolutionary decrease in cancer-related mortality and an increase in survival due to the introduction of novel targeted drugs. Nevertheless, drugs targeting human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), angiogenesis, and other tyrosine kinases also come with unexpected cardiac side effects, including heart failure, hypertension, arterial thrombosis, and arrhythmias, and have mechanisms that are unlike those of classic chemotherapeutic agents. In addition, it is challenging to address some problems, as the existing guidelines need to be more specific, and further large-scale clinical trials and experimental studies are required to confirm the benefit of administering cardioprotective agents to patients treated with targeted therapies. Therefore, an improved understanding of cardiotoxicity becomes increasingly important to minimize the pernicious effects and maximize the beneficial effects of targeted agents.

METHODS

"Cardiotoxicity", "targeted drugs", "HER2", "trastuzumab", "angiogenesis inhibitor", "VEGF inhibitor" and "tyrosine kinase inhibitors" are used as keywords for article searches.

RESULTS

In this article, we report several targeted therapies that induce cardiotoxicity and update knowledge of the clinical evidence, molecular mechanisms, and management measures.

Anti-Angiogenic Therapy: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives

Anti-angiogenic therapy is an old method to fight cancer that aims to abolish the nutrient and oxygen supply to the tumor cells through the decrease of the vascular network and the avoidance of new blood vessels formation. Most of the anti-angiogenic agents approved for cancer treatment rely on targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) actions, as VEGF signaling is considered the main angiogenesis promotor. In addition to the control of angiogenesis, these drugs can potentiate immune therapy as VEGF also exhibits immunosuppressive functions. Despite the mechanistic rational that strongly supports the benefit of drugs to stop cancer progression, they revealed to be insufficient in most cases. We hypothesize that the rehabilitation of old drugs that interfere with mechanisms of angiogenesis related to tumor microenvironment might represent a promising strategy. In this review, we deepened research on the molecular mechanisms underlying anti-angiogenic strategies and their failure and went further into the alternative mechanisms that impact angiogenesis. We concluded that the combinatory targeting of alternative effectors of angiogenic pathways might be a putative solution for anti-angiogenic therapies.

Total Serum Cholesterol and Pancreatic Cancer: A Nested Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic cancer is the third leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States. Total serum cholesterol (TSC) may predict cancer risk, although its role independent of statins remains elusive. We examined the association between TSC and pancreatic cancer risk independent of statins.

METHODS

A nested case-control analysis was conducted among statin-naïve patients within The Health Improvement Network (THIN), a United Kingdom-based general practice database. Cases were >40 years old and diagnosed with pancreatic cancer after at least 6 months of follow-up. Controls were selected by incidence density sampling and matched by age, sex, practice site, and follow-up. Primary exposure was TSC (mmol/L) prior to index date. Conditional logistic regression estimated ORs for pancreatic cancer risk associated with TSC. Sensitivity analyses were conducted among nondiabetics.

RESULTS

Among 1,241 cases and 3,307 matched controls, an average 8% reduction was observed in pancreatic cancer risk per mmol/L increase in TSC [OR 0.92, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.85-1.00; nondiabetics: OR 0.91, 95% CI: 0.83-0.99]. When TSC was measured at 12-month intervals prior to diagnosis, the OR between TSC and pancreatic cancer was 0.88 at 0 to 12 months (95% CI: 0.77-1.00; nondiabetics: OR 0.81, 95% CI: 0.68-0.96). No significant association was seen at subsequent discrete intervals before index date.

CONCLUSIONS

TSC is a significant predictor of short-term risk for pancreatic cancer. This risk increase associated with lower TSC was independent of statins.

IMPACT

TSC could serve as a biomarker for risk stratification, screening, and early diagnosis of pancreatic cancer in future clinical prediction models.

Role of simvastatin in tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis

Lymphangiogenesis plays a crucial role in promoting cancer metastasis to sentinel lymph nodes (LNs) and beyond. Increasing data have shown that simvastatin, a cholesterol-lowering medication for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, is involved in tumor growth and dissemination, and endothelial functions. This study aimed to investigate the potential effect of simvastatin on lymphatic formation and LN metastasis. Tumor models were established by subcutaneous injection of B16-F10 melanoma cells into mouse hind footpads. Simvastatin was administered (0.2 µg/g, intraperitoneal injection, IP) every other day for a total of eight times. Tissue samples were removed and examined by immunohistochemical staining and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) techniques. The lymphatics of LN, skin, liver, and lung exhibited morphological changes, and LN weight and metastatic area of the tumor group treated with simvastatin was lower than that of the untreated tumor group. Analysis of lymphatic size, area fraction, and lymphatic vessel density showed tissue specificity and variation to melanoma carcinogenesis in the simvastatin-treated group compared with the untreated group. In addition, LNs and cutaneous tissues showed altered expression of lymphangiogenic factors and inflammatory cytokines such as VEGF-A/-C/-D and TNF-α. These findings indicated that simvastatin may modify lymphangiogenesis and tumor progression in malignant melanoma.

Vascular toxicities with VEGF inhibitor therapies-focus on hypertension and arterial thrombotic events

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathway (VSP) fulfills a cardinal role in endothelial cells and its inhibition has profound cardiovascular impact. This is true not only for the normal vasculature but also for the tumor vasculature when VSP inhibitors are used as anti-angiogenic therapies. Generalized endothelial dysfunction predisposes to vasoconstriction, atherosclerosis, platelet activation, and thrombosis (arterial more than venous). All of these have been reported with VSP inhibitors and collectively give rise to vascular toxicities, the most concerning of which are arterial thromboembolic events (ATE). VSP inhibitors include antibodies, acting extracelluarly on VEGF, such as bevacizumab and tyrosine kinases inhibitors, acting intracellularly on the kinase domain of VEGF receptors, such as sunintib and sorafenib. The addition of bevacizumab and VSP tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy to the cancer treatment regimen is associated with a 1.5-2.5-fold and 2.3-4.6-fold increase risk of ATEs, respectively. Risk factors for ATEs while on VSP inhibitor therapy include age older than 65 years, previous thromboembolic events, history of atherosclerotic disease, and duration of VSP inhibitor therapy. In clinical practice, hypertension remains the most commonly noted vascular manifestation of VSP inhibition. Optimal blood pressure goals and preferred therapeutic strategies toward reaching these goals are not defined at present. This review summarizes current data on this topic and proposes a more intensive management approach to patients undergoing VSP inhibitor therapy including Systolic Blood PRessure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) blood pressure goals, pleiotropic vasoprotective agents such as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, amlodipine, and carvedilol, high-dose statin therapy, and aspirin.

Statin regulated ERK5 stimulates tight junction formation and reduces permeability in human cardiac endothelial cells

The MEKK3/MEK5/ERK5 signaling axis is required for cardiovascular development in vivo. We analyzed the physiological role of ERK5 in cardiac endothelial cells and the consequence of activation of this kinase by the statin class of HMG Co‐A reductase inhibitor drugs. We utilized human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (HCMECs) and altered ERK5 expression using siRNA mediated gene silencing or overexpression of constitutively active MEK5 and ERK5 to reveal a role for ERK5 in regulating endothelial tight junction formation and cell permeability. Statin treatment of HCMECs stimulated activation of ERK5 and translocation to the plasma membrane resulting in co‐localization with the tight junction protein ZO‐1 and a concomitant reduction in endothelial cell permeability. Statin mediated activation of ERK5 was a consequence of reduced isoprenoid synthesis following HMG Co‐A reductase inhibition. Statin pretreatment could overcome the effect of doxorubicin in reducing endothelial tight junction formation and prevent increased permeability. Our data provide the first evidence for the role of ERK5 in regulating endothelial tight junction formation and endothelial cell permeability. Statin mediated ERK5 activation and the resulting decrease in cardiac endothelial cell permeability may contribute to the cardioprotective effects of statins in reducing doxorubicin‐induced cardiotoxicity.

Simvastatin ameliorates graft-vs-host disease by regulating angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2 in a murine model

Angiopoietins play an important role in vascular endothelial function. Endothelial damage is an important pathogenesis relating with acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT), protecting endothelial cells (ECs) from damage may be a potent prophylaxis and therapeutic strategy of acute GVHD (aGVHD). In this study, we explored changes in Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and Ang-2 expression in a aGVHD mouse model and determined whether simvastatin prevents GVHD through regulating Ang-1 and Ang-2 expression. In vitro simvastatin administration increased Ang-1 production and release but conversely inhibited Ang-2 release from EA.hy926 ECs. Simvastatin improved the survival of aGVHD mice, attenuated the histopathological GVHD grades and plasma levels of Ang-2, and elevated the plasma levels of Ang-1 as well as the aortic endothelial levels of Ang-1 and Ang-2. In summary, simvastatin represents a novel approach to combat GVHD by increasing Ang-1 production while suppressing Ang-2 release to stabilize endothelial cells.

Statin and Metformin Use Prolongs Survival in Patients With Resectable Pancreatic Cancer

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of statin and metformin therapy on disease outcome for patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).

METHODS

This retrospective study included 171 PDAC patients who underwent surgical resection at the Stanford Cancer Institute between 1998 and 2013. No patients received neoadjuvant therapy. Statin and metformin use was defined as use during initial consult and continuing upon discharge from the hospital after surgery. Dose of each medication was recorded, as was the type of statin taken.

RESULTS

The median follow-up for all patients was 11.23 months (range, 0.2-105.0 months). Among the 171 patients included in our analysis, 18 patients (10.5%) took metformin and 34 patients (19.9%) took statins. Statin use was associated with better overall survival (OS) in patients with PDAC (P = 0.011). Metformin use was also associated with better OS (P = 0.035). The use of statins remained significant on multivariate analysis for OS (P = 0.014; hazards ratio, 0.33; 95% confidence interval, 0.139-0.799), but metformin use did not (P = 0.33; hazards ratio 0.60, 95% confidence interval, 0.211-1.675).

CONCLUSIONS

Statin and metformin use is associated with improved OS in patients with resectable PDAC. These medications should be further investigated for possible long-term use in the general population.

Cancer prevention and therapy through the modulation of the tumor microenvironment

Cancer arises in the context of an in vivo tumor microenvironment. This microenvironment is both a cause and consequence of tumorigenesis. Tumor and host cells co-evolve dynamically through indirect and direct cellular interactions, eliciting multiscale effects on many biological programs, including cellular proliferation, growth, and metabolism, as well as angiogenesis and hypoxia and innate and adaptive immunity. Here we highlight specific biological processes that could be exploited as targets for the prevention and therapy of cancer. Specifically, we describe how inhibition of targets such as cholesterol synthesis and metabolites, reactive oxygen species and hypoxia, macrophage activation and conversion, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase regulation of dendritic cells, vascular endothelial growth factor regulation of angiogenesis, fibrosis inhibition, endoglin, and Janus kinase signaling emerge as examples of important potential nexuses in the regulation of tumorigenesis and the tumor microenvironment that can be targeted. We have also identified therapeutic agents as approaches, in particular natural products such as berberine, resveratrol, onionin A, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, curcumin, naringenin, desoxyrhapontigenin, piperine, and zerumbone, that may warrant further investigation to target the tumor microenvironment for the treatment and/or prevention of cancer.

Exploitation of pleiotropic actions of statins by using tumour-targeted delivery systems

Statins are drugs traditionally used to lower cholesterol levels in blood. At concentrations 100- to 500-fold higher than those needed for reaching cholesterol lowering activity, they have anti-tumour activity. This anti-tumour activity is based on statins pleiotropic effects derived from their ability to inhibit the mevalonate synthesis and include anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-metastatic actions and modulatory effects on intra-tumour oxidative stress. Thus, in this review, we summarise the possible pleiotropic actions of statins involved in tumour growth inhibition. Since the administration of these high doses of statins is accompanied by severe side effects, targeted delivery of statins seems to be the appropriate strategy for efficient application of statins in oncology. Therefore, we also present an overview of the current status of targeted delivery systems for statins with possible utilisation in oncology.

Maslinic acid induces mitochondrial apoptosis and suppresses HIF-1α expression in A549 lung cancer cells under normoxic and hypoxic conditions

The apoptotic effects of maslinic acid (MA) at 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 μmol/L on human lung cancer A549 cells under normoxic and hypoxic conditions were examined. MA at 4–64 and 16–64 μmol/L lowered Bcl-2 expression under normoxic and hypoxic conditions, respectively (p < 0.05). This agent at 4–64 μmol/L decreased Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity and increased caspase-3 expression under normoxic conditions, but at 8–64 μmol/L it caused these changes under hypoxic conditions (p < 0.05). MA up-regulated caspase-8, cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor expression under normoxic and hypoxic conditions at 8–64 μmol/L and 32–64 μmol/L, respectively (p < 0.05). MA down-regulated hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), survivin and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression under normoxic and hypoxic conditions at 8–64 and 16–64 μmol/L, respectively (p < 0.05). After cells were pre-treated with YC-1, an inhibitor of HIF-1α, MA failed to affect the protein expression of HIF-1α, VEGF, survivin and iNOS (p > 0.05). MA at 8-64 and 32-64 μmol/L reduced reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide levels under both conditions (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that maslinic acid, a pentacyclic triterpenic acid, exerted its cytotoxic activities toward A549 cells by mediating mitochondrial apoptosis and the HIF-1α pathway.

A lovastatin-elicited genetic program inhibits M2 macrophage polarization and enhances T cell infiltration into spontaneous mouse mammary tumors

Beyond their ability to inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, the statins have pleiotropic effects that include anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. Statins could have clinical utility, alone or in combination with other chemotherapeutics, in the treatment of cancer. The mechanisms that underlie the anti-tumor activity of the statins are nonetheless poorly defined. No studies have analyzed how they alter the tumor-associated leukocyte infiltrate, a central factor that influences tumor stroma and cancer evolution. Here we used HER2/neu transgenic (Tg-neu) mice to analyze the effect of lovastatin (Lov) on the inflammatory reaction of spontaneous mammary tumors. Lov treatment of tumor-bearing Tg-neu mice did not alter growth of established tumors, but significantly reduced the number of new oncogenic lesions in these mice. Moreover, Lov inhibited the growth of newly implanted Tg-neu tumors in immunocompetent but not in immunodeficient mice. We found that Lov enhanced tumor infiltration by effector T cells, and reduced the number of immunosuppressive and pro-angiogenic M2-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAM). Concomitantly, the drug improved the structure and function of the tumor vasculature, measured as enhanced tumor oxygenation and penetration of cytotoxic drugs. Microarray analysis identified a Lov-elicited genetic program in Tg-neu tumors that might explain these effects; we observed Lov-induced downregulation of placental growth factor, which triggers aberrant angiogenesis and M2-like TAM polarization. Our results identify a role for lovastatin in the shaping and re-education of the inflammatory infiltrate in tumors, with functional consequences in angiogenesis and antitumor immunity.

Effect of preoperative simvastatin treatment on transplantation of cryopreserved-warmed mouse ovarian tissue quality

After the ovarian tissue (OT) transplantation, the ischemia-reperfusion injury causes depletion and apoptosis of follicle. Recent reports stated that simvastatin reduces ischemic damage. Therefore, we used the mouse whole ovarian vitrification and autotransplantation models to investigate the effects of simvastatin. Five-week-old B6D2F1 mice were randomly divided into four groups. Three groups were given simvastatin orally (5 mg/kg) before ovariectomy, either 2 hours before (2H Tx) or once a day for 3 or 7 days. The control group was given saline 2 hours before ovariectomy. All ovaries were cryopreserved by vitrification, held in liquid nitrogen for 1 week before being warmed, and autotransplanted. The grafts were collected for analysis on 2, 7, or 21 days after transplantation. Ovarian follicle morphology and apoptosis were assessed by hematoxylin and eosin staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assay. Vessel integrity in ovary was evaluated by immunohistochemistry using anti-CD31 antibody. Serum FSH level was measured to estimate the transplanted ovarian reserve. The proportion of morphologically normal (G1) follicles at 7 and 21 days and the percentage of CD31 (+) tissue at 21 days was significantly higher in the 2H Tx group than that in the control group. In addition, the 2H Tx group showed a significantly increased intact primordial follicle ratio at 2 and 21 days after OT transplantation. Administration of simvastatin 2 hours before ovariectomy could improve the quality after transplantation of cryopreserved mouse OT.