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Wang J, Liang K, Chen L, Su X, Liao D, Yu J, He J. Unveiling the stealthy tactics: mycoplasma's immune evasion strategies. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1247182. [PMID: 37719671 PMCID: PMC10502178 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1247182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasmas, the smallest known self-replicating organisms, possess a simple structure, lack a cell wall, and have limited metabolic pathways. They are responsible for causing acute or chronic infections in humans and animals, with a significant number of species exhibiting pathogenicity. Although the innate and adaptive immune responses can effectively combat this pathogen, mycoplasmas are capable of persisting in the host, indicating that the immune system fails to eliminate them completely. Recent studies have shed light on the intricate and sophisticated defense mechanisms developed by mycoplasmas during their long-term co-evolution with the host. These evasion strategies encompass various tactics, including invasion, biofilm formation, and modulation of immune responses, such as inhibition of immune cell activity, suppression of immune cell function, and resistance against immune molecules. Additionally, antigen variation and molecular mimicry are also crucial immune evasion strategies. This review comprehensively summarizes the evasion mechanisms employed by mycoplasmas, providing valuable insights into the pathogenesis of mycoplasma infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyun Wang
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Keying Liang
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Li Chen
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoling Su
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Daoyong Liao
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Jianwei Yu
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Department of Public Health Laboratory Sciences, School of Public Health, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Jun He
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
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Mycoplasma hominis Causes DNA Damage and Cell Death in Primary Human Keratinocytes. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10101962. [PMID: 36296238 PMCID: PMC9608843 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma hominis can be isolated from the human urogenital tract. However, its interaction with the host remains poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of M. hominis infection on primary human keratinocytes (PHKs). Cells were quantified at different phases of the cell cycle. Proteins involved in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis progression were evaluated. The expression of genes encoding proteins that are associated with the DNA damage response and Toll-like receptor pathways was evaluated, and the cytokines involved in inflammatory responses were quantified. A greater number of keratinocytes were observed in the Sub-G0/G1 phase after infection with M. hominis. In the viable keratinocytes, infection resulted in G2/M-phase arrest; GADD45A expression was increased, as was the expression of proteins such as p53, p27, and p21 and others involved in apoptosis regulation and oxidative stress. In infected PHKs, the expression of genes associated with the Toll-like receptor pathways showed a change, and the production of IFN-γ, interleukin (IL) 1β, IL-18, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor alpha increased. The infection of PHKs by M. hominis causes cellular damage that can affect the cell cycle by activating the response pathways to cellular damage, oxidative stress, and Toll-like receptors. Overall, this response culminated in the reduction of cell proliferation/viability in vitro.
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Wen Y, Chen Z, Tian Y, Yang M, Dong Q, Yang Y, Ding H. Incomplete autophagy promotes the proliferation of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae through the JNK and Akt pathways in porcine alveolar macrophages. Vet Res 2022; 53:62. [PMID: 35927699 PMCID: PMC9351181 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01074-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an important conserved homeostatic process related to nutrient and energy deficiency and organelle damage in diverse eukaryotic cells and has been reported to play an important role in cellular responses to pathogens and bacterial replication. The respiratory bacterium Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae has been identified to enter porcine alveolar macrophages, which are considered important immune cells. However, little is known about the role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of M. hyopneumoniae infection of porcine alveolar macrophages. Our experiments demonstrated that M. hyopneumoniae infection enhanced the formation of autophagosomes in porcine alveolar macrophages but prevented the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes, thereby blocking autophagic flux and preventing the acidification and destruction of M. hyopneumoniae in low-pH surroundings. In addition, using different autophagy regulators to intervene in the autophagy process, we found that incomplete autophagy promoted the intracellular proliferation of M. hyopneumoniae. We also found that blocking the phosphorylation of JNK and Akt downregulated the autophagy induced by M. hyopneumoniae, but pathways related to two mitogen-activated protein kinases (Erk1/2 and p38) did not affect the process. Collectively, M. hyopneumoniae induced incomplete autophagy in porcine alveolar macrophages through the JNK and Akt signalling pathways; conversely, incomplete autophagy prevented M. hyopneumoniae from entering and degrading lysosomes to realize the proliferation of M. hyopneumoniae in porcine alveolar macrophages. These findings raise the possibility that targeting the autophagic pathway may be effective for the prevention or treatment of M. hyopneumoniae infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukang Wen
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Zhengkun Chen
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Yaqin Tian
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Mei Yang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Qingshuang Dong
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Yujiao Yang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Honglei Ding
- Laboratory of Veterinary Mycoplasmology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China.
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Yang J, Liu Y, Lin C, Yan R, Li Z, Chen Q, Zhang H, Xu H, Chen X, Chen Y, Guo A, Hu C. Regularity of Toll-Like Receptors in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells Induced by Mycoplasma bovis. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:846700. [PMID: 35464378 PMCID: PMC9021453 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.846700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mastitis is one of the most common and significant infectious diseases in dairy cattle and is responsible for significant financial losses for the dairy industry globally. An important pathogen of bovine mastitis, Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) has a high infection rate, requires a long course of treatment, and is difficult to cure. Bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs) are the first line of defense of the mammary gland, and their natural immune system plays a critical role in resisting M. bovis infection. This study aimed to explore and demonstrate the regularity of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) activation during M. bovis infection and their function during M. bovis mastitis. An in vitro model of M. bovis-induced mastitis showed that the expression of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α increased significantly following infection. M. bovis infection also upregulated the expression of TLR1/2/6 on the cell membrane and TLR3/9 in the cytoplasm. There is a crosstalk effect between TLR1–TLR2 and TLR2–TLR6. Furthermore, M. bovis infection was found to activate the TLR1/2/6/9/MyD88/NF-κB and TLR3/TRIF/IRF signal transduction pathways, which in turn activate inflammatory factors. These findings lay the theoretical foundation for understanding the pathogenesis of M. bovis, permitting the development of effective measures for preventing and controlling M. bovis mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghan Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuhui Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Changjie Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Rui Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhengzhi Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiuhui Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Haojun Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xi Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yingyu Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Aizhen Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Changmin Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Changmin Hu
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Di Teodoro G, Marruchella G, Di Provvido A, D'Angelo AR, Orsini G, Di Giuseppe P, Sacchini F, Scacchia M. Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia: A Comprehensive Overview. Vet Pathol 2020; 57:476-489. [PMID: 32390522 DOI: 10.1177/0300985820921818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a respiratory disease of cattle that is listed as notifiable by the World Organization for Animal Health. It is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa and causes important productivity losses due to the high mortality and morbidity rates. CBPP is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (Mmm) and is characterized by severe fibrinous bronchopneumonia and pleural effusion during the acute to subacute stages and by pulmonary sequestra in chronic cases. Additional lesions can be detected in the kidneys and in the carpal and tarsal joints of calves. Mmm infection occurs through the inhalation of infected aerosol droplets. After the colonization of bronchioles and alveoli, Mmm invades blood and lymphatic vessels and causes vasculitis. Moreover, Mmm can be occasionally demonstrated in blood and in a variety of other tissues. In the lung, Mmm antigen is commonly detected on bronchiolar and alveolar epithelial cells, in lung phagocytic cells, within the wall of blood and lymphatic vessels, inside necrotic areas, and within tertiary lymphoid follicles. Mmm antigen can also be present in the cytoplasm of macrophages within lymph node sinuses, in the germinal center of lymphoid follicles, in glomerular endothelial cells, and in renal tubules. A complete pathological examination is of great value for a rapid presumptive diagnosis, but laboratory investigations are mandatory for definitive diagnosis. The purpose of this review is to describe the main features of CBPP including the causative agent, history, geographic distribution, epidemiology, clinical course, diagnosis, and control. A special focus is placed on gross and microscopic lesions in order to familiarize veterinarians with the pathology and pathogenesis of CBPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Di Teodoro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Marruchella
- University of Teramo, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Loc. Piano d'Accio, Teramo, Italy
| | - Andrea Di Provvido
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Anna Rita D'Angelo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Gianluca Orsini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Paola Di Giuseppe
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Flavio Sacchini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Massimo Scacchia
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale," OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
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Di Teodoro G, Marruchella G, Di Provvido A, Orsini G, Ronchi GF, D'Angelo AR, D'Alterio N, Sacchini F, Scacchia M. Respiratory explants as a model to investigate early events of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia infection. Vet Res 2018; 49:5. [PMID: 29329577 PMCID: PMC5766988 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0500-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a severe disease caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (Mmm). Knowledge on CBPP pathogenesis is fragmented and hampered by the limited availability of laboratory animal and in vitro models of investigation. The purpose of the present study is to assess respiratory explants as useful tools to study the early stages of CBPP. Explants were obtained from trachea, bronchi and lungs of slaughtered cattle, tested negative for Mycoplasma spp. and for the major bacterial and viral respiratory pathogens. The interaction of Mmm with explant cells was studied by immunohistochemistry (IHC), double-labelling indirect immunofluorescence (DLIIF) and laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). Mmm capability to survive and proliferate within the explants was evaluated by standard microbiological procedures. Finally, the putative cellular internalization of Mmm was further investigated by the gentamicin invasion assay. IHC and DLIIF indicated that Mmm can colonize explants, showing a marked tropism for lower airways. Specifically, Mmm was detected on/inside the bronchiolar and alveolar epithelial cells, the alveolar macrophages and the endothelial cells. The interaction between Mmm and explant cells was abolished by the pre-incubation of the pathogen with bovine anti-Mmm immune sera. Mmm was able to survive and proliferate in all tracheal, bronchial and lung explants, during the entire time course of the experiments. LSCM and gentamicin invasion assay both confirmed that Mmm can enter non-phagocytic host cells. Taken together, our data supports bovine respiratory explants as a promising tool to investigate CBPP, alternative to cattle experimental infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Di Teodoro
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Loc. Piano d'Accio, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Marruchella
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Loc. Piano d'Accio, 64100, Teramo, Italy.
| | - Andrea Di Provvido
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Gianluca Orsini
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Gaetano Federico Ronchi
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Anna Rita D'Angelo
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Nicola D'Alterio
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Flavio Sacchini
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Massimo Scacchia
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise "G. Caporale", Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
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Fibroblast-Derived Exosomes Contribute to Chemoresistance through Priming Cancer Stem Cells in Colorectal Cancer. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125625. [PMID: 25938772 PMCID: PMC4418721 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemotherapy resistance observed in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) may be related to the presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs), but the underlying mechanism(s) remain unclear. Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are intimately involved in tumor recurrence, and targeting them increases chemo-sensitivity. We investigated whether fibroblasts might increase CSCs thus mediating chemotherapy resistance. CSCs were isolated from either patient-derived xenografts or CRC cell lines based on expression of CD133. First, CSCs were found to be inherently resistant to cell death induced by chemotherapy. In addition, fibroblast-derived conditioned medium (CM) promoted percentage, clonogenicity and tumor growth of CSCs (i.e., CD133+ and TOP-GFP+) upon treatment with 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) or oxaliplatin (OXA). Further investigations exhibited that exosomes, isolated from CM, similarly took the above effects. Inhibition of exosome secretion decreased the percentage, clonogenicity and tumor growth of CSCs. Altogether, our findings suggest that, besides targeting CSCs, new therapeutic strategies blocking CAFs secretion even before chemotherapy shall be developed to gain better clinical benefits in advanced CRCs.
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