Chitosan promotes immune responses, ameliorating total mature white blood cell numbers, but increases glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and glutamic pyruvic transaminase, and ameliorates lactate dehydrogenase levels in leukemia mice in vivo

Effect of feeding chitosan and blend of essential organic acids on growth performance, haematological parameters and innate immunity in early aged male layer chicks

The use of antibiotics as conventional feed additives in poultry operations have proven useful, however resulted serious health concerns to consumer due to their bio-accumulation, besides rising problem of antimicrobial resistance in microbes, thus, an alternative to antibiotic growth promoter have called for. One of the aim of the experiment was to assess the lone and combined effects of feeding of chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) and blend of organic acids and short chain fatty acids in essential oils on growth performance, haematological parameters, relative lymphoid organ weight and innate immunity in early aged layer chick (male birds). A total of ninety, day-old chicks were randomly allotted into five groups: CO, Control group fed only poultry feed ; AGP, antibiotic growth promoter fed Avilomycin at the dose of 200 mg/kg of poultry feed; CH, chitosan oligosaccharide fed at the rate of 100 mg/kg feed; OE, blend of organic acids and short chain fatty acids in essential oils contained 1000 to 2000 mg/kg feed in a graded dose per week and CH + OE, chitosan oligosaccharide plus blend of organic acids and short chain fatty acids in essential oils at consistent rate and manner as followed for each of given feed additives when fed individually. Data on growth performance, samples for haematological parameters and innate immunity were measured and assayed on 7th, 21st and 42nd day post feeding (dpf) respectively. The results showed that compared with the control group; there is a marginal gain in body weight at 7th and 21st dpf in CH group and the corresponding CH + OE group. Feed conversion ratio in CH group was remarkably good at 7th and 21st dpf. No significant difference was observed in relative organ weights of thymus, spleen and Bursa of Fabricius in treatment groups as compared to control birds; however a significant rise in splenic weight index in OE fed birds at 42nd dpf noted. Haematological changes were inconsequential in treatment groups with an exception to enhancement of heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (H:L ratio) in CH group at 42nd dpf. Serum lysozyme activity proportionately elevated in CH + OE group on 21st and 42nd dpf when measured against control group; on the other hand no detectable augmentation of gut lysozyme activity observed. Both serum bactericidal and gut bactericidal activity boosted in combinatorial group at 42nd dpf. These results indicated that early age feeding of chitosan individually or combination with organic acids and short chain fatty acids in layer chick is beneficial, as it has the potential to enhance body weight gain to some extent and improves systemic and localized innate immunity to offer protection against infectious assaults thus may avoid early chick mortality in farms.

New Insights into Sources, Bioavailability, Health-Promoting Effects, and Applications of Chitin and Chitosan

Chitin and chitosan are mostly derived from the exoskeletons of crustaceans, insects, and fungi. Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose, and it is a fibrous polysaccharide which resists enzymatic degradation in the stomach but undergoes microbial fermentation in the colon, producing beneficial metabolites. Chitosan, which is more soluble in the alkaline small intestine, is more susceptible to enzymatic action. Both biopolymers show limited absorption into the bloodstream, with smaller particles exhibiting better bioavailability. The health effects include anti-inflammatory properties, potential in immune system modulation, impacts on cholesterol levels, and antimicrobial effects, with a specific focus on implications for gut health. Chitin and chitosan exhibit anti-inflammatory properties by interacting with immune cells, influencing cytokine production, and modulating immune responses, which may benefit conditions characterized by chronic inflammation. These biopolymers can impact cholesterol levels by binding to dietary fats and reducing lipid absorption. Additionally, their antimicrobial properties contribute to gut health by controlling harmful pathogens and promoting beneficial gut microbiota. This review explores the extensive health benefits and applications of chitin and chitosan, providing a detailed examination of their chemical compositions, dietary sources, and applications, and critically assessing their health-promoting effects in the context of human well-being.

Recent findings regarding the synergistic effects of emodin and its analogs with other bioactive compounds: Insights into new mechanisms

CONTEXT

Emodin is a natural bioactive ingredient mainly extracted from traditional Chinese herbs. Increasing lines of evidence suggest that emodin and its analogs exert notable synergistic pharmacological effects with other bioactive compounds.

OBJECTIVE

This review provides an overview of the pharmacological activity of emodin and its analogs in combination with other physiologically active substances, describes the related molecular mechanisms, and discusses future prospects in this field.

METHODS

Information from multiple scientific databases, such as PubMed, the China Knowledge Resource Integrated Database from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Baidu Scholar, was collected between January 2006 and August 2022. The subject terms used in the literature search were emodin, pharmaceutical activities, analogs, aloe emodin, rhein, and synergistic effects.

RESULTS

The comprehensive literature analysis suggested that combinations of emodin or its analogs with other bioactive compounds exert notable synergistic anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects and that such combinations improve glucose and lipid metabolism and central nervous system diseases.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Further assessments of the dose-effect relationship and the differences in the efficacy of emodin or its analogs with other bioactive compounds among various modes of administration are needed, and a drug safety evaluation of these combinations needs to be carefully performed. Future studies should also focus on determining the optimal drug combinations for specific diseases.

Bee venom as an alternative for antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus infections

The misuse of antibiotics has led to antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, making it even harder to combat and eliminate their infections. Staphylococcus aureus causes various adverse infections and diseases, including skin abscesses, bloodstream infections, pneumonia, and joint infections. In this study, we aimed to test the cytotoxic and antibacterial effects of bee venom-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (BV-loaded CS-NPs) in comparison to gamma-irradiated BV and native BV from Apis mellifera. The physiochemical characterizations of our treatments were determined by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), zeta-potential, release rate, and Encapsulation Efficiency (EE). Our study was conducted on both levels, in-vitro and in-vivo. For the in-vitro study, a bacterial model of Staphylococcus aureus with an ATCC number of 6538 was grown in tryptic soy agar (TSA) medium, and the inhibition zones of our drug candidates were measured with the appropriate statistical analysis performed. For the in-vivo study, levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Creatinine, Urea, and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were analyzed. BV-loaded CS-NPs showed relatively better results than the other alternatives, which are native BV and gamma-irradiated BV. The results showed that the antibacterial effect of BV-loaded CS-NPs was greater than the alternatives. Furthermore, its cytotoxic effect was far less than the native and irradiated bee venom. These outcomes ensure that loading BV on CS-NPs makes it a promising drug candidate for an antibiotic alternative with minimal cytotoxicity and enhanced antibacterial activity.

Selenium-chitosan alleviates the toxic effects of Zearalenone on antioxidant and immune function in mice

This study assessed the protective effects of selenium-chitosan (SC) against antioxidant and immune function-related damage induced by zearalenone (ZEN) in mice. In total, 150 female mice were allotted to five groups for a 30-day study. Control mice were fed a basal diet. Mice in the ZEN, ZEN-Se1, ZEN-Se2 and ZEN-Se3 groups were fed the basal diet supplemented with same dose of ZEN (2 mg/kg) and different doses of SC, 0.0, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 mg/kg, respectively (calculated by selenium). After 30 days, the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) level, glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity, total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) content in plasma and liver, as well as Con A-induced splenocyte proliferation, plasma interleukins concentrations and liver interleukin mRNA expression levels were determined. The plasma and liver GSH-Px activities, liver T-AOC levels, Con A-induced splenocyte proliferation, interleukin (IL) contents and mRNA expression levels in the ZEN group were significantly lower than in the control group (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05), whereas plasma and liver MDA contents in the ZEN group were significantly higher than in the control group (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). Additionally, plasma and liver GSH-Px activities, liver T-AOC levels, Con A-induced splenocyte proliferation, IL-1β, IL-17A, IL-2 and IL-6 contents and mRNA expression levels in ZEN+Se2 and ZEN+Se3 groups were significantly higher than in the ZEN group (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05), whereas plasma and liver MDA contents in the ZEN+Se2 and ZEN+Se3 groups were significantly lower than in the ZEN group (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). The plasma and liver GSH-Px activities, Con A-induced splenocyte proliferation, IL-1β and IL-6 contents, IL-2 and IL-17A mRNA expression levels in the ZEN+Se1 group were also significantly higher than in the ZEN group (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05), whereas the plasma MDA content in the ZEN+Se1 group was also significantly lower than in the ZEN group (P < 0.01). Thus, SC may alleviate antioxidant function-related damage and immunosuppression induced by ZEN in mice.

Chitosan attenuated the neurotoxicity-induced titanium dioxide nanoparticles in brain of adult rats

In the current study, we aimed to investigate the neurotoxic effect of oral titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) as well as the possible neuroprotective effect of carboxymethyl chitosan in adult rats for 14 days. The results revealed that TiO₂ NPs inhibited the activity of the acetylcholine esterase enzyme and the levels of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine neurotransmitters. Additionally, it induced neuro-oxidative stress and neuroinflammation via an elevation in MDA levels and IL-6, while GSH concentration, as well as GPx and GST activities, were decreased. TiO₂ NPs induced neuronal apoptosis through upregulation of the expression of caspase-8 and -9 that was further confirmed by increasing caspases-3 and -8 proteins in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum. The expression of the immediate-early gene BDNF was increased in response to TiO₂ NPs, while that of Arc was reduced. Chitosan significantly attenuated the TiO₂ NPs-induced neurotoxicity regarding AChE, serotonin, MDA, GSH, GPx, GST, IL-6, caspases-8, -9, and -3. Chitosan inhibited the expression of Arc and alleviated the effect of TiO₂ NPs on BDNF expression. Collectively, TiO₂ NPs induced neurotoxicity via their action on vital neuronal biomarkers that might in turn cause brain dysfunction. Despite the neuroprotection of chitosan, its inhibitory effect on Arc expression should be considered.

Chitosan as possible inhibitory agents and delivery systems in leukemia

Leukemia is a lethal cancer in which white blood cells undergo proliferation and immature white blood cells are seen in the bloodstream. Without diagnosis and management in early stages, this type of cancer can be fatal. Changes in protooncogenic genes and microRNA genes are the most important factors involved in development of leukemia. At present, leukemia risk factors are not accurately identified, but some studies have pointed out factors that predispose to leukemia. Studies show that in the absence of genetic risk factors, leukemia can be prevented by reducing the exposure to risk factors of leukemia, including smoking, exposure to benzene compounds and high-dose radioactive or ionizing radiation. One of the most important treatments for leukemia is chemotherapy which has devastating side effects. Chemotherapy and medications used during treatment do not have a specific effect and destroy healthy cells besides leukemia cells. Despite the suppressing effect of chemotherapy against leukemia, patients undergoing chemotherapy have poor quality of life. So today, researchers are focusing on finding more safe and effective natural compounds and treatments for cancer, especially leukemia. Chitosan is a valuable natural compound that is biocompatible and non-toxic to healthy cells. Anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant effects are examples of chitosan biopolymer properties. The US Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of this compound in medical treatments and the pharmaceutical industry. In this article, we take a look at the latest advances in the use of chitosan in the treatment and improvement of leukemia.

Effect of chitosan on blood profile, inflammatory cytokines by activating TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in intestine of heat stressed mice

Heat stress can significantly affect the immune function of the animal body. Heat stress stimulates oxidative stress in intestinal tissue and suppresses the immune responses of mice. The protecting effects of chitosan on heat stress induced colitis have not been reported. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of chitosan on immune function in heat stressed mice. Mice were exposed to heat stress (40 °C per day for 4 h) for 14 consecutive days. The mice (C57BL/6J), were randomly divided into three groups including: control group, heat stress, Chitosan group (LD: group 300 mg/kg/day, MD: 600 mg/kg/day, HD: 1000 mg/kg/day). The results showed that tissue histology was improved in chitosan groups than heat stress group. The current study showed that the mice with oral administration of chitosan groups had improved body performance as compared with the heat stress group. The results also showed that in chitosan treated groups the production of HSP70, TLR4, p65, TNF-α, and IL-10 was suppressed on day 1, 7, and 14 as compared to the heat stress group. In addition Claudin-2, and Occludin mRNA levels were upregulated in mice receiving chitosan on day 1, 7, and 14 of heat stress. Furthermore, the IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α plasma levels were down-regulated on day 1, 7, and 14 of heat stress in mice receiving the oral administration of chitosan. In conclusion, the results showed that chitosan has an anti-inflammatory ability to tolerate hot environmental conditions.

Immunomodulatory potential of chitosan-based materials for cancer therapy: a systematic review of in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies

Chitosan (Ch) has recently been used in different studies as a vaccine adjuvant with an ability to modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME). This systematic review aims to elucidate the added value of using Ch-based therapies for immunotherapeutic strategies in cancer treatment, through the exploration of different Ch-based formulations, their capacity to modulate immune cells in vitro and in vivo, and their translational potential for clinical settings. A systematic review was conducted on PubMed, following both inclusion and exclusion steps. Original articles which focused on the immunomodulatory role of Ch-based formulations in the TME were included, as well as its usage as a delivery vehicle for other immunomodulatory molecules. This review illustrates the added value of Ch-based systems to reshape the TME, through the modulation of immune cells using different Ch formulations, namely solutions, films, gels, microneedles and nanoparticles. Generally, Ch-based formulations increase the recruitment and proliferation of cells associated with pro-inflammatory abilities and decrease cells which exert anti-inflammatory activities. These effects correlated with a decreased tumor weight, reduced metastases, reversion of the immunosuppressive TME and increased survival in vivo. Overall, Ch-based formulations present the potential for immunotherapy in cancer. Nevertheless, clinical translation remains challenging, since the majority of the studies use Ch in formulations with other components, implicating that some of the observed effects could result from the combination of the individual effects. More studies on the use of different Ch-based formulations, complementary to standardization and disclosure of the Ch properties used are required to improve the immunomodulatory effects of Ch-based formulations in cancer.

Genistein enhances the effects of L-asparaginase on inducing cell apoptosis in human leukemia cancer HL-60 cells

Genistein (GEN) has been shown to induce apoptotic cell death in various human cancer cells. L-asparaginase (Asp), a clinical drug for leukemia, has been shown to induce cell apoptosis in leukemia cells. No available information concerning GEN combined with Asp increased the cell apoptosis compared to GEN or Asp treatment alone. The objective of this study is to evaluate the anti-leukemia activity of GEN combined with Asp on human leukemia HL-60 cells in vitro. The cell viability, the distribution of cell cycle, apoptotic cell death, and the level of ΔΨ_m were examined by flow cytometric assay. The expressions of apoptosis-associated proteins were measured by western blotting. GEN combined with Asp revealed a more significant decrease in total viable cells and induced a higher percentage of G2/M phase arrest, DNA damage, and cell apoptosis than that of GEN or Asp treatment only in HL-60 cells. Furthermore, the combined treatments (GEN and Asp) showed a higher decrease in the level of ΔΨ_m than that of GEN or Asp treatment only. These results indicated that GEN combined with Asp induced mitochondria dysfunction by disrupting the mitochondrial membrane potential. The results from western blotting demonstrated that the treatment of GEN combined with Asp showed a higher increase in the levels of Bax and Bak (pro-apoptotic proteins) and an active form of caspase-3 and a higher decrease in Bcl-2 (anti-apoptotic protein) than that of GEN or Asp treatment alone. GEN significantly enhances the efficiency of Asp on cytotoxic effects (the induction of apoptosis) in HL-60 cells.

Chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles as adjuvant in local Rift Valley Fever inactivated vaccine

The present study aimed to improve the potency of inactivated Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV) vaccine using chitosan (CS) or chitosan nanoparticles (CNP) as adjuvants. Chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by ionic gelation method. Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV) inactivated antigen was loaded on CS and CNP to form two vaccine formulations, RVFV-chitosan nanoparticles based vaccine (RVFV-CNP) and RVFV chitosan based vaccine (RVFV-CS). Five groups of mice were used in this study, each group was injected with one of the following: phosphate buffer saline (group1 G1), RVFV-CNP (G2), (RVF-CS) (G3), RVFV-Alum based vaccine (RVFV-Alum) (G4) and adjuvant free RVFV inactivated antigen (RVFV-Ag) (G5). The immunization was performed twice with 2 weeks interval. The results showed that, RVFV-CNP vaccine enhanced strongly the phagocytic activity of peritoneal macrophage (PM), neutralization antibodies titer against RVFV and IgG values against RVFV nucleoprotein than other vaccine formulations did. In addition, the RVFV-CNP and RVF-CS vaccines upregulate the gene expression of IL-2, IFN-γ (which promote cell mediated immunity) and IL-4 (which promote humeral immunity), while RVFV-Alum vaccine upregulate the gene expression of IL-4 only. These findings indicated that CS and CNP were comparable to the alum as adjuvant in efficacy but superior to it in inducing cell-mediated immune response and might be a candidate adjuvant for inactivated RVFV vaccine.

Maslinic Acid Enhances Immune Responses in Leukemic Mice Through Macrophage Phagocytosis and Natural Killer Cell Activities In Vivo

BACKGROUND/AIM

Maslinic acid (MA), a pentacyclic triterpene extracted from wax-like coatings of olives, has been shown to reduce cancer cell number through induction of autophagy and apoptosis in many human cancer cells including human leukemia HL-60 cells. In the present study, we investigated whether or not MA affects immune responses in a leukemia mouse model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

WEHI-3 cells were intraperitonealIy (i.p.) injected into normal BALB/c mice to develop leukemia. Mice were then treated by i.p. injection with MA at different doses (0, 8, 16 and 32 mg/kg) for 2 weeks. After treatment, all animals were weighed and blood, liver and spleen tissues were weighed. Blood or spleen both were used for determination of cell markers or phagocytosis, natural killer (NK) cell activities and T- and B-cell proliferation, respectively, by using a flow cytometric assay.

RESULTS

MA did not significantly affect body, liver, and spleen weights. However, MA increased markers of T-cells (at 16 mg/kg treatment) and monocytes (at 32 mg/kg treatment), but reduced B-cell markers (at 8 mg/kg treatment); MA did not significantly affect cell marker of macrophages. Furthermore, MA increased phagocytosis by macrophages from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and peritoneal cavity at 32 mg/kg treatment and increased NK cell activity at target cell:splenocyte ratio of 25:1 but did not affect B- and T-cell proliferation.

CONCLUSION

MA increased immune responses by enhancing macrophage phagocytosis and NK cell activities in leukemic mice.

Laminarin Promotes Immune Responses and Reduces Lactate Dehydrogenase But Increases Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase in Normal Mice In Vivo

BACKGROUND/AIM

Laminarin, a typical component of fungal cell walls, has been shown to induce immune responses in both adult and larval locusts. We investigated the effects of laminarin on immune response and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT), glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in normal mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-six normal BALB/c mice were randomly divided into four groups and treatments were provided by gavage. Group I mice acted as normal control; mice of groups II-IV received laminarin at different doses (100 μl at 1, 2.5 and 5.0 mg/mouse in double-distilled water, respectively). All animals were treated for 14 days and were weighed, blood was collected for determination of cell markers, liver and spleen samples were weighed. Spleens were used for phagocytosis and determination of natural killer (NK) cell activity and cell proliferation by flow cytometric assay.

RESULTS

Laminarin reduced the body weights and weights of liver and spleen. Laminarin increased CD3, CD19 and Mac-3 cell populations at 2.5 and 5 mg/mouse, however, these did not affect CD11b marker levels. Laminarin (1 and 5 mg/mouse) reduced macrophage phagocytosis from peripheral blood mononuclear cells, but did not affect phagocytosis by macrophages from the peritoneal cavity. At an effector:target ratio of 50:1, laminarin reduced NK cell cytotoxic activity at all levels, but at a ratio of 25:1, only at 1 mg treatment. Laminarin did not affect T-cell and B-cell proliferation. Laminarin increased the level of GPT and reduced that of LDH at all doses, indicating laminarin can protect against liver injury. Laminarin is worthy of investigation in future experiments on improving immune responses.