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Liburkin-Dan T, Toledano S, Neufeld G. Lysyl Oxidase Family Enzymes and Their Role in Tumor Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23116249. [PMID: 35682926 PMCID: PMC9181702 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The five genes of the lysyl oxidase family encode enzymes that covalently cross-link components of the extracellular matrix, such as various types of collagen and elastin, and, thus, promote the stabilization of extracellular matrixes. Several of these genes, in particular lysyl oxidase (LOX) and lysyl oxidase like-2 (LOXL2) were identified as genes that are upregulated by hypoxia, and promote tumor cells invasion and metastasis. Here, we focus on the description of the diverse molecular mechanisms by which the various lysyl oxidases affect tumor progression. We also describe attempts that have been made, and are still on-going, that focus on the development of efficient lysyl oxidase inhibitors for the treatment of various forms of cancer, and of diseases associated with abnormal fibrosis.
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Trackman PC, Peymanfar Y, Roy S. Functions and Mechanisms of Pro-Lysyl Oxidase Processing in Cancers and Eye Pathologies with a Focus on Diabetic Retinopathy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:5088. [PMID: 35563478 PMCID: PMC9105217 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23095088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidases are multifunctional proteins derived from five lysyl oxidase paralogues (LOX) and lysyl oxidase-like 1 through lysyl oxidase-like 4 (LOXL1-LOXL4). All participate in the biosynthesis of and maturation of connective tissues by catalyzing the oxidative deamination of lysine residues in collagens and elastin, which ultimately results in the development of cross-links required to function. In addition, the five LOX genes have been linked to fibrosis and cancer when overexpressed, while tumor suppression by the propeptide derived from pro-LOX has been documented. Similarly, in diabetic retinopathy, LOX overexpression, activity, and elevated LOX propeptide have been documented. The proteolytic processing of pro-forms of the respective proteins is beginning to draw attention as the resultant peptides appear to exhibit their own biological activities. In this review we focus on the LOX paralogue, and what is known regarding its extracellular biosynthetic processing and the still incomplete knowledge regarding the activities and mechanisms of the released lysyl oxidase propeptide (LOX-PP). In addition, a summary of the roles of both LOX and LOX-PP in diabetic retinopathy, and brief mentions of the roles for LOX and closely related LOXL1 in glaucoma, and keratoconus, respectively, are included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip C. Trackman
- The Forsyth Institute, 245 First Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA;
- Department of Translational Dental Medicine, Boston University Henry M Goldman School of Dental Medicine, 700 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Yaser Peymanfar
- The Forsyth Institute, 245 First Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA;
| | - Sayon Roy
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, 650 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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Farhat A, Ferns GA, Ashrafi K, Arjmand MH. Lysyl Oxidase Mechanisms to Mediate Gastrointestinal Cancer Progression. Gastrointest Tumors 2021; 8:33-40. [PMID: 34568293 DOI: 10.1159/000511244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Malignancy is a complex process resulting from different changes such as extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and stiffness. One of the important enzymes that contribute to ECM remodeling is lysyl oxidase (Lox) that is overexpressed in different types of human cancers. Because of the high prevalence and poor survival of gastrointestinal (GI) malignancies in this review, we discuss the association between Lox activity and the progression of GI cancers. Lox proteins are a group of extracellular enzymes that catalyzed the cross-linking of collagen and elastin, so they have important roles in the control of structure and homeostasis of ECM. Abnormal activation and expression of the Lox family of proteins lead to changes in the ECM toward increased rigidity and fibrosis. Stiffness of ECM can contribute to the pathogenesis of cancers. Summary Dysregulation of Lox expression is a factor in both fibrotic diseases and cancer. ECM stiffness by Lox overactivity creates a physical barrier against intratumoral concentration of chemotherapeutic drugs and facilitates cancer inflammation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Key Message Because of the roles of Lox in GI cancers, development targeting Lox protein isotypes may be an appropriate strategy for treatment of GI cancers and improvement in survival of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmadshah Farhat
- Neonatal Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Gordon A Ferns
- Brighton & Sussex Medical School, Division of Medical Education, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Korosh Ashrafi
- Medical Plants Research Center, Basic Health Sciences Institute, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Mohammad-Hassan Arjmand
- Medical Plants Research Center, Basic Health Sciences Institute, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran.,Cancer Research Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
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Roles of Lysyl Oxidase Family Members in the Tumor Microenvironment and Progression of Liver Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249751. [PMID: 33371259 PMCID: PMC7766343 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family members are secreted copper-dependent amine oxidases, comprised of five paralogues: LOX and LOX-like l-4 (LOXL1-4), which are characterized by catalytic activity contributing to the remodeling of the cross-linking of the structural extracellular matrix (ECM). ECM remodeling plays a key role in the angiogenesis surrounding tumors, whereby a corrupt tumor microenvironment (TME) takes shape. Primary liver cancer includes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), ranked as the seventh most common cancer globally, with limited therapeutic options for advanced stages. In recent years, a growing body of evidence has revealed the key roles of LOX family members in the pathogenesis of liver cancer and the shaping of TME, indicating their notable potential as therapeutic targets. We herein review the clinical value and novel biological roles of LOX family members in tumor progression and the TME of liver cancers. In addition, we highlight recent insights into their mechanisms and their potential involvement in the development of target therapy for liver cancer.
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Wang X, Senapati S, Akinbote A, Gnanasambandam B, Park PSH, Senyo SE. Microenvironment stiffness requires decellularized cardiac extracellular matrix to promote heart regeneration in the neonatal mouse heart. Acta Biomater 2020; 113:380-392. [PMID: 32590172 PMCID: PMC7428869 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The transient period of regeneration potential in the postnatal heart suggests molecular changes with maturation influence the cardiac response to damage. We have previously demonstrated that injury and exercise can stimulate cardiomyocyte proliferation in the adult heart suggesting a sensitivity to exogenous signals. Here, we consider whether exogenous fetal ECM and mechanically unloading interstitial matrix can drive regeneration after myocardial infarction (MI) surgery in low-regenerative hearts of day5 mice. Compared to controls, exogenous fetal ECM increases cardiac function and lowers fibrosis at 3 weeks post-injury and this effect can be augmented by softening heart tissue. In vitro experiments support a mechano-sensitivity to exogenous ECM signaling. We tested potential mechanisms and observed that fetal ECM increases nuclear YAP localization which could be enhanced by pharmacological stabilization of the cytoskeleton. Blocking YAP expression lowered fetal ECM effects though not completely. Lastly we observed mechanically unloading heart interstitial matrix increased agrin expression, an extracellular node in the YAP signaling pathway. Collectively, these data support a combined effect of exogenous factors and mechanical activity in altering agrin expression, cytoskeletal remodeling, and YAP signaling in driving cardiomyocyte cell cycle activity and regeneration in postnatal non-regenerative mice. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: With the purpose of developing regenerative strategies, we investigate the influence of the local niche on the cardiac injury response. We conclude tissue stiffness, as anticipated in aging or disease, impairs regenerative therapeutics. Most novel, mechanical unloading facilitates enhanced cardiac regeneration only after cells are pushed into a permissive state by fetal biomolecules. Specifically, mechanical unloading appears to increase extracellular agrin expression that amplifies fetal-stimulation of nuclear YAP signaling which correlates with observed increases of cell cycle activity in cardiomyocytes. The results further suggest the cytoskeleton is critical to this interaction between mechanical unloading and independently actived YAP signaling. Using animal models, tissue explants, and cells, this work indicates that local mechanical stimuli can augment proliferating-permissive cardiomyocytes in the natural cardiac niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinming Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States
| | - Subhadip Senapati
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, United States
| | - Akinola Akinbote
- Department of Macromolecular Science & Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, United States
| | - Bhargavee Gnanasambandam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States
| | - Paul S-H Park
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, United States
| | - Samuel E Senyo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States.
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Laczko R, Csiszar K. Lysyl Oxidase (LOX): Functional Contributions to Signaling Pathways. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10081093. [PMID: 32708046 PMCID: PMC7465975 DOI: 10.3390/biom10081093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cu-dependent lysyl oxidase (LOX) plays a catalytic activity-related, primary role in the assembly of the extracellular matrix (ECM), a dynamic structural and regulatory framework which is essential for cell fate, differentiation and communication during development, tissue maintenance and repair. LOX, additionally, plays both activity-dependent and independent extracellular, intracellular and nuclear roles that fulfill significant functions in normal tissues, and contribute to vascular, cardiac, pulmonary, dermal, placenta, diaphragm, kidney and pelvic floor disorders. LOX activities have also been recognized in glioblastoma, diabetic neovascularization, osteogenic differentiation, bone matrix formation, ligament remodeling, polycystic ovary syndrome, fetal membrane rupture and tumor progression and metastasis. In an inflammatory context, LOX plays a role in diminishing pluripotent mesenchymal cell pools which are relevant to the pathology of diabetes, osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Most of these conditions involve mechanisms with complex cell and tissue type-specific interactions of LOX with signaling pathways, not only as a regulatory target, but also as an active player, including LOX-mediated alterations of cell surface receptor functions and mutual regulatory activities within signaling loops. In this review, we aim to provide insight into the diverse ways in which LOX participates in signaling events, and explore the mechanistic details and functional significance of the regulatory and cross-regulatory interactions of LOX with the EGFR, PDGF, VEGF, TGF-β, mechano-transduction, inflammatory and steroid signaling pathways.
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Lu Q, Li L, Huang A, Cui L, Zhang Y, Liu Q, Wang X, Wang Y, Liu Z, Yuan Z, Dai M. Molecular Characterization and Biological Function of a Novel LncRNA CRNG in Swine. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:539. [PMID: 31178726 PMCID: PMC6537671 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous study has showed that a novel gene is differentially expressed in the liver of cyadox-fed piglets, but its sequence and function are unknown. Here, rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) and bioinformatics analysis showed that the novel gene is 953 bp without protein-coding ability and locates in chromosome 11. Hence, we identified the novel gene as long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and named it cyadox-related novel gene (CRNG). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) showed that CRNG mainly distributes in cytoplasm. Moreover, microarray assay in combination with CRNG interference and overexpression showed that the differential genes such as ANPEP, KITLG, STAT5A, FOXP3, miR-451, IL-2, IL-10, IL-6, and TNF-α are mainly involved in viral and pathogens infection and the immune-inflammatory responses in PK-15 cells. This work reveals that CRNG might play a role in preventing the host from being infected by pathogens and viruses and exerting immune regulatory effects in the cytoplasm, which may be involved in prophylaxis of cyadox in piglets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qirong Lu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Li
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Aixin Huang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Luqing Cui
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yinfeng Zhang
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qianying Liu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xu Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yulian Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhenli Liu
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zonghui Yuan
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Menghong Dai
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues and Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory for the Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues in Foods, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China.,Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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