Biomarkers for EMT and MET in breast cancer: An update

The differences between pure and mixed invasive micropapillary breast cancer: the epithelial-mesenchymal transition molecules and prognosis

PURPOSE

Invasive micropapillary carcinoma (IMPC) of the breast is known for its high metastatic potential, but the definition of pure and mixed IMPC remains unclear. This retrospective cohort study aims to investigate the prognostic significance of the micropapillary component ratio and the expression of critical molecules of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), including E-cadherin (E-cad), N-cadherin (N-cad), CD44s, and β-catenin (β-cat), in distinguishing between pure and mixed IMPCs.

METHODS

We analyzed 100 cases of locally advanced IMPC between 2000 and 2018 and excluded patients who received neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Pure IMPC was defined as having a micropapillary component of over 90%. A comprehensive recording of prognostic parameters was conducted. The IMPC areas were analyzed using the immunohistochemical (IHC) staining method on the microarray set for pure and mixed IMPC patients. Pearson's chi-square, Fisher's exact tests, Kaplan-Meier analysis, and Cox proportional hazards analysis were employed.

RESULTS

The comparative survival analysis of the entire group, based on overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS), revealed no significant difference between the pure and mixed groups (P = 0.480, HR = 1.474 [0.502-4.325] and P = 0.390, HR = 1.587 [0.550-4.640], respectively). However, in the pure IMPC group, certain factors were found to be associated with a higher risk of short survival. These factors included skin involvement (P = 0.050), pT3&4 category (P = 0.006), a ratio of intraductal component (> 5%) (P = 0.032), and high-level expression of N-cad (P = 0.020). Notably, none of the risk factors identified for short OS in pure IMPC cases were observed as significant risks in mixed cases and vice versa. Furthermore, N-cad was identified as a poor prognostic marker for OS in pure IMPCs (P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

The selection of a 90% ratio for classifying pure IMPCs revealed significant differences in certain molecular and prognostic parameters between pure and mixed groups. Notably, the involvement of N-cadherin in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process provided crucial insights for predicting OS and DFS while also distinguishing between the two groups. These findings strongly support the notion that the pure IMPC subgroup represents a distinct entity characterized by unique molecular characteristics and behavioral patterns.

Breast cancer patient-derived organoids for the investigation of patient-specific tumour evolution

BACKGROUND

A reliable preclinical model of patient-derived organoids (PDOs) was developed in a case study of a 69-year-old woman diagnosed with breast cancer (BC) to investigate the tumour evolution before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy and surgery. The results were achieved due to the development of PDOs from tissues collected before (O-PRE) and after (O-POST) treatment.

METHODS

PDO cultures were characterized by histology, immunohistochemistry (IHC), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, real-time PCR, bulk RNA-seq, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and drug screening.

RESULTS

Both PDO cultures recapitulated the histological and molecular profiles of the original tissues, and they showed typical mammary gland organization, confirming their reliability as a personalized in vitro model. Compared with O-PRE, O-POST had a greater proliferation rate with a significant increase in the Ki67 proliferation index. Moreover O-POST exhibited a more stem-like and aggressive phenotype, with increases in the CD24low/CD44low and EPCAMlow/CD49fhigh cell populations characterized by increased tumour initiation potential and multipotency and metastatic potential in invasive lobular carcinoma. Analysis of ErbB receptor expression indicated a decrease in HER-2 expression coupled with an increase in EGFR expression in O-POST. In this context, deregulation of the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway was assessed by transcriptomic analysis, confirming the altered transcriptional profile. Finally, transcriptomic single-cell analysis identified 11 cell type clusters, highlighting the selection of the luminal component and the decrease in the number of Epithelial-mesenchymal transition cell types in O-POST.

CONCLUSION

Neoadjuvant treatment contributed to the enrichment of cell populations with luminal phenotypes that were more resistant to chemotherapy in O-POST. PDOs represent an excellent 3D cell model for assessing disease evolution.

Comprehensive Immunohistochemical Analysis of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Biomarkers in the Invasive Micropapillary Cancer of the Breast

Background: Invasive micropapillary carcinoma (IMPC) of the breast is commonly associated with a poor prognosis due to its high incidence of lymphovascular invasion and lymph node metastasis (LNM). Our study is aimed at investigating the prognostic significance of the expressions of E-cadherin (E-cad), N-cadherin (N-cad), CD44s, and β-catenin (β-cat). In addition, it is aimed at deciphering the consistency of these markers between the IMPC, the invasive breast carcinoma, no-special type (IBC-NST), and LNM components in the same IMPC cases. Methods: Sixty-two IMPC cases with LNM from 1996 to 2018 were analyzed. Immunohistochemical staining was performed separately on the three regions for each patient. Statistical analyses included Kaplan-Meier, Cox regression, and McNemar's statistical tests. Results: Loss of CD44 expression in IMPC, IBC-NST, and LNM areas was associated with poor prognosis in overall survival (OS) (p = 0.010, p < 0.0005, p = 0.025). Loss of CD44 expression in the IBC-NST, gain of N-cad expression in the IMPC, and loss of β-cat expression in the LNM areas were indicators of poor prognosis in disease-free survival (DFS) (p = 0.005, p = 0.041, p = 0.009). Conclusion: Our evaluation of this rare subtype, focusing on the expression of key epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) molecules, revealed that it shares characteristics with the IBC-NST component within mixed tumors. Notably, contrary to expectations, a reduction in CD44 expression was found to adversely affect both OS and DFS. By conducting staining procedures simultaneously across three regions within the same patient, a novel approach has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of EMT.

A new Neu-a syngeneic model of spontaneously metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer

Metastatic disease results from the dissemination of tumor cells beyond their organ of origin to grow in distant organs and is the primary cause of death in patients with advanced breast cancer. Preclinical murine models in which primary tumors spontaneously metastasize are valuable tools for studying metastatic progression and novel cancer treatment combinations. Here, we characterize a novel syngeneic murine breast tumor cell line that provides a model of spontaneously metastatic neu-expressing breast cancer with quicker onset of widespread metastases after orthotopic mammary implantation in immune-competent NeuN mice. The NT2.5-lung metastasis (-LM) cell line was derived from serial passaging of tumor cells that were macro-dissected from spontaneous lung metastases after orthotopic mammary implantation of parental NT2.5 cells. Within one week of NT2.5-LM implantation, metastases are observed in the lungs. Within four weeks, metastases are also observed in the bones, spleen, colon, and liver. We demonstrate that NT2.5-LM metastases are positive for NeuN-the murine equivalent of human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2). We further demonstrate altered expression of markers of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), suggestive of their enhanced metastatic potential. Genomic analyses support these findings and reveal enrichment in EMT-regulating pathways. In addition, the metastases are rapidly growing, proliferative, and responsive to HER2-directed therapy. The new NT2.5-LM model provides certain advantages over the parental NT2/NT2.5 model, given its more rapid and spontaneous development of metastases. Besides investigating mechanisms of metastatic progression, this new model may be used for the rationalized development of novel therapeutic interventions and assessment of therapeutic responses.

Angiotensin (1-7) Inhibits Transforming Growth Factor-Β1-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition of Human Keratinocyte Hacat Cells in vitro

Introduction

Angiotensin (1-7) (Ang-(1-7)) is an emerging component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) with effective anti-fibrosis properties and has been shown to interfere with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by numerous studies. In recent years, EMT has been proposed as a new therapeutic target for skin fibrotic diseases such as keloids. However, the effect of Ang-(1-7) on EMT in skin is still unclear. Hence, the purpose of this study was to explore the effect of Ang-(1-7) on Transforming growth factor-β1(TGF-β1)-induced EMT of human immortalized keratinocytes HaCaT in vitro.

Methods

The study involved the use of the human immortalized keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT). The cells were cultured in high-glucose DMEM medium with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin-streptomycin. Four groups were created for experimentation: control group (Group C), TGF-β1-treated group (Group T), Ang-(1-7)-treated group (Group A), and a group treated with both TGF-β1 and Ang-(1-7) (Group A + T). Various assays were conducted, including a cell proliferation assay using CCK-8 solution, a scratch wound healing assay to evaluate cell migration, and Western blotting to detect protein expressions related to cell characteristics. Additionally, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to analyze epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) related gene expression levels. The study aimed to investigate the effects of TGF-β1 and Ang-(1-7) on HaCaT cells.

Results

We found that Ang-(1-7) not only reduced the migration of HaCaT cells induced by TGF-β1 in vitro but also reduced the expression of α-SMA and vimentin, and restored the protein expression of E-cadherin and claudin-1. Mechanistically, Ang-(1-7) inhibits the phosphorylation levels of Smad2 and Smad3 in the TGF-β1 canonical pathway, and suppresses the expression of EMT-related transcription factors (EMT-TFs) such as SNAI2, TWIST1, and ZEB1.

Discussion

Taken together, our findings suggest that Ang-(1-7) inhibits TGF-β1-induced EMT in HaCaT cells in vitro by disrupting the TGF-β1-Smad canonical signaling pathway. These results may be helpful in the treatment of EMT in skin fibrotic diseases such as keloids.

Modified Lichong decoction intervenes in colorectal cancer by modulating the intestinal flora and the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis and treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC) continue to be areas of ongoing research, especially the benefits of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in slowing the progression of CRC. This study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness and mechanism of action of modified Lichong decoction (MLCD) in inhibiting CRC progression.

METHODS

We established CRC animal models using azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate (AOM/DSS) and administered high, medium, or low doses of MLCD or mesalazine (MS) for 9 weeks to observe MLCD alleviation of CRC. The optimal MLCD dose group was then subjected to metagenomic and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to explore the differentially abundant flora and genes in the control, model and MLCD groups. Finally, the mechanism of action was verified using WB, qRT‒PCR, immunohistochemistry and TUNEL staining.

RESULTS

MLCD inhibited the progression of CRC, and the optimal effect was observed at high doses. MLCD regulated the structure and function of the intestinal flora by decreasing the abundance of harmful bacteria and increasing that of beneficial bacteria. The differentially expressed genes were mainly associated with the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and the cell cycle. Molecular biology analysis indicated that MLCD suppressed the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), inhibited abnormal cell proliferation and promoted intestinal epithelial cell apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

MLCD mitigated the abnormal growth of intestinal epithelial cells and promoted apoptosis, thereby inhibiting the progression of CRC. This inhibition was accomplished by modifying the intestinal microbiota and disrupting the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and the EMT. Therefore, MLCD could serve as a potential component of TCM prescriptions for CRC treatment.

Curcumin suppresses metastasis of triple-negative breast cancer cells by modulating EMT signaling pathways: An integrated study of bioinformatics analysis

This study aimed to use bioinformatics approaches for predicting the anticancer mechanisms of curcumin on triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and to verify these predictions through in vitro experiments. Initially, the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) assay was employed to rigorously investigate the influence of curcumin on the proliferative capacity of TNBC cells. Subsequently, flow cytometry was employed to meticulously assess the impact of curcumin on cellular apoptosis and the cell cycle regulation. Transwell assays were employed to meticulously evaluate the effect of curcumin on the motility of TNBC cells. RNA sequencing was conducted, followed by Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses of differentially expressed genes, aiming to elucidate the potential anticancer mechanisms underlying curcumin's effects. To thoroughly elucidate the interactions among multiple proteins, we constructed a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Finally, the expression levels of several key proteins, including fibronectin, mTOR, β-Catenin, p-Akt, Akt, N-Cadherin, p-S6, and S6, were assessed using the western blot. The CCK8 assay results showed that curcumin significantly inhibited the proliferation of Hs578T and MDA-MB-231 cells. Flow cytometry results showed that curcumin induced apoptosis in these cells and arrested the cell cycle at the G2/M phase. Additionally, Transwell assay results showed that curcumin effectively reduced the motility of Hs578T and MDA-MB-231 cells. Enrichment analysis of RNA sequencing data showed that the mechanism of action of curcumin was significantly associated with signaling pathways such as pathways in cancer, focal adhesion, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways. Subsequently, we constructed a protein-protein interaction network to elucidate the interactions among multiple proteins. Finally, Western blotting analysis showed that curcumin significantly decreased the expression levels of key proteins including Fibronectin, mTOR, β-Catenin, p-Akt, Akt, N-Cadherin, p-S6, and S6. Curcumin exhibits its therapeutic potential in TNBC by modulating multiple signaling pathways. It may inhibit the epithelial-mesenchymal transition process by downregulating the expression of proteins involved in the mTOR and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways, thereby suppressing the motility of TNBC cells. These findings provide experimental evidence for considering curcumin as a potential therapeutic strategy in the treatment of TNBC.

A statistical learning method for simultaneous copy number estimation and subclone clustering with single-cell sequencing data

The availability of single-cell sequencing (SCS) enables us to assess intra-tumor heterogeneity and identify cellular subclones without the confounding effect of mixed cells. Copy number aberrations (CNAs) have been commonly used to identify subclones in SCS data using various clustering methods, as cells comprising a subpopulation are found to share a genetic profile. However, currently available methods may generate spurious results (e.g., falsely identified variants) in the procedure of CNA detection, thereby diminishing the accuracy of subclone identification within a large, complex cell population. In this study, we developed a subclone clustering method based on a fused lasso model, referred to as FLCNA, which can simultaneously detect CNAs in single-cell DNA sequencing (scDNA-seq) data. Spike-in simulations were conducted to evaluate the clustering and CNA detection performance of FLCNA, benchmarking it against existing copy number estimation methods (SCOPE, HMMcopy) in combination with commonly used clustering methods. Application of FLCNA to a scDNA-seq data set of breast cancer revealed different genomic variation patterns in neoadjuvant chemotherapy-treated samples and pretreated samples. We show that FLCNA is a practical and powerful method for subclone identification and CNA detection with scDNA-seq data.

Deregulation of miR-1245b-5p and miR-92a-3p and their potential target gene, GATA3, in epithelial-mesenchymal transition pathway in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small molecules that have prominent roles in tumor development and metastasis and can be used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This study evaluated the expression of miR-92a-3p and miR-1245b-5p and their potential target gene, GATA3 in patients with breast cancer (BC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the search for BC-related microRNAs, miR-124b-5p and miR-92a-3p were selected using Medline through PubMed, miR2disease, miRcancer and miRTarBase. Moreover, target gene GATA3 and their possible interaction in the regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasion was evaluated using in silico tools including miRTarBase, TargetScan, STRING-db, and Cytoscape. The expression level of miR-92a-3p, miR1245b-5p, and GATA3 were assessed on extracted RNAs of tumor and nontumor tissues from 36 patients with BC using qPCR. Additionally, clinical-pathologic characteristics, such as tumor grade, tumor stage, lymph node were taken into consideration and the diagnostic power of these miRNAs and GATA3 was evaluated using the ROC curve analysis.

RESULTS

In silico evaluation of miR-92a-3p and miR-1245b-5p supports their potential association with EMT and invasion signaling pathways in BC pathogenesis. Comparing tumor tissues to nontumor tissues, we found a significant downregulation of miR-1245b-5p and miR-92a-3p and upregulation of GATA3. Patients with BC who had decreased miR-92a-3p expression also had higher rates of advanced stage/grade and ER expression, whereas decreased miR-1245b-5p expression was only linked to ER expression and was not associated with lymph node metastasis. The AUC of miR-1245b-5p, miR-92a-3p, and GATA3 using ROC curve was determined 0.6449 (p = .0239), 0.5980 (p = .1526), and 0.7415 (p < .0001), respectively, which showed a significant diagnostic accuracy of miR-1245b-5p and GATA3 between the BC patients and healthy individuals.

CONCLUSION

MiR-1245b-5p, miR-92a-3p, and GATA3 gene contribute to BC pathogenesis and they may be having potential regulatory roles in signaling pathways involved in invasion and EMT pathways in BC pathogenesis, as a result of these findings. More research is needed to determine the regulatory mechanisms that they control.

Downregulation of homeobox B8 in attenuating non-small cell lung cancer cell migration and invasion though the epithelial-mesenchymal transition pathway

Background

Homeobox (HOX) family genes have been identified as regulators of cancer development. No research exists concerning the mechanisms underlying homeobox B8 (HOXB8) activity in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In this study, we investigated expression and biological function in NSCLC to determine whether it is an important marker of patient prognosis.

Methods

HOXB8 expression in NSCLC tissues was investigated using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western blot assays. In addition, HOXB8 was knocked down in NSCLC cells to assess its biological functions in this context. The invasive and migratory potential of cells was evaluated by using Transwell (BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) inserts with 8-µm pores. Furthermore, Western blotting was used to explore whether HOXB8 can influence epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

Results

HOXB8 was expressed at high levels in NSCLC tissues and cell lines compared with adjacent normal tissues. Patients with high HOXB8 expression had shorter survival time and worse prognosis. HOXB8 expression was associated with pathological grading, tumor size, and lymph node metastasis. HOXB8 was prognostic in patients with NSCLC. After knockdown of HOXB8 via small interfering RNA, the proliferation, migration and invasion ability of the cells were significantly reduced compared with the control group. Moreover, EMT was inhibited by the downregulation of HOXB8 expression, as the expressions of E-cadherin was upregulated and that of the N-cadherin, vimentin, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), and twist were downregulated. HOXB8 is a member of the ANTP homeobox family and encodes a nuclear protein with a homeobox DNA-binding domain. It is included in a cluster of homeobox B genes located on chromosome 17. The encoded protein functions as a sequence-specific transcription factor that is involved in development.

Conclusions

HOXB8 is highly expressed in NSCLC and may predict prognosis of patients with this type of cancer. Furthermore, HOXB8 may promote NSCLC progression through the regulation of the EMT process.

Mimicking the breast metastatic microenvironment: characterization of a novel syngeneic model of HER2+ breast cancer

Preclinical murine models in which primary tumors spontaneously metastasize to distant organs are valuable tools to study metastatic progression and novel cancer treatment combinations. Here, we characterize a novel syngeneic murine breast tumor cell line, NT2.5-lung metastasis (-LM), that provides a model of spontaneously metastatic neu-expressing breast cancer with quicker onset of widespread metastases after orthotopic mammary implantation in immune-competent NeuN mice. Within one week of orthotopic implantation of NT2.5-LM in NeuN mice, distant metastases can be observed in the lungs. Within four weeks, metastases are also observed in the bones, spleen, colon, and liver. Metastases are rapidly growing, proliferative, and responsive to HER2-directed therapy. We demonstrate altered expression of markers of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and enrichment in EMT-regulating pathways, suggestive of their enhanced metastatic potential. The new NT2.5-LM model provides more rapid and spontaneous development of widespread metastases. Besides investigating mechanisms of metastatic progression, this new model may be used for the rationalized development of novel therapeutic interventions and assessment of therapeutic responses targeting distant visceral metastases.

Onco-Breastomics: An Eco-Evo-Devo Holistic Approach

Known as a diverse collection of neoplastic diseases, breast cancer (BC) can be hyperbolically characterized as a dynamic pseudo-organ, a living organism able to build a complex, open, hierarchically organized, self-sustainable, and self-renewable tumor system, a population, a species, a local community, a biocenosis, or an evolving dynamical ecosystem (i.e., immune or metabolic ecosystem) that emphasizes both developmental continuity and spatio-temporal change. Moreover, a cancer cell community, also known as an oncobiota, has been described as non-sexually reproducing species, as well as a migratory or invasive species that expresses intelligent behavior, or an endangered or parasite species that fights to survive, to optimize its features inside the host's ecosystem, or that is able to exploit or to disrupt its host circadian cycle for improving the own proliferation and spreading. BC tumorigenesis has also been compared with the early embryo and placenta development that may suggest new strategies for research and therapy. Furthermore, BC has also been characterized as an environmental disease or as an ecological disorder. Many mechanisms of cancer progression have been explained by principles of ecology, developmental biology, and evolutionary paradigms. Many authors have discussed ecological, developmental, and evolutionary strategies for more successful anti-cancer therapies, or for understanding the ecological, developmental, and evolutionary bases of BC exploitable vulnerabilities. Herein, we used the integrated framework of three well known ecological theories: the Bronfenbrenner's theory of human development, the Vannote's River Continuum Concept (RCC), and the Ecological Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Eco-Evo-Devo) theory, to explain and understand several eco-evo-devo-based principles that govern BC progression. Multi-omics fields, taken together as onco-breastomics, offer better opportunities to integrate, analyze, and interpret large amounts of complex heterogeneous data, such as various and big-omics data obtained by multiple investigative modalities, for understanding the eco-evo-devo-based principles that drive BC progression and treatment. These integrative eco-evo-devo theories can help clinicians better diagnose and treat BC, for example, by using non-invasive biomarkers in liquid-biopsies that have emerged from integrated omics-based data that accurately reflect the biomolecular landscape of the primary tumor in order to avoid mutilating preventive surgery, like bilateral mastectomy. From the perspective of preventive, personalized, and participatory medicine, these hypotheses may help patients to think about this disease as a process governed by natural rules, to understand the possible causes of the disease, and to gain control on their own health.

miRNAs in the prognosis of triple-negative breast cancer: A review

Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and invasive type of breast cancer (BC) with high mortality rate wherein effective target medicaments are lacking. It is a very heterogeneous group with several subtypes that account for 10-20% of cancer among women globally, being negative for three most important receptors (estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)), with an early and high recurrence resulting in poor survival rate. Therefore, a more thorough knowledge on carcinogenesis of TNBC is required for the development of personalized treatment options. miRNAs can either promote or suppress tumorigenesis and have been linked to a number of features of cancer progression, including proliferation, metastasis, apoptosis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Recent miRNA research shows that there is great potential for the development of novel biomarkers as they have emerged as drivers of tumorigenesis and provide opportunities to target various components involved in TNBC, thus helping to solve this difficult-to-treat disease. In this review, we summarize the most relevant miRNAs that play an essential role in TNBC biology. Their role with regard to molecular mechanisms underlying TNBC progression has been discussed, and their potential use as therapeutic or prognostic markers to unravel the intricacy of TNBC based on the pieces of evidence obtained from various works of literature has been briefly addressed.

Immune system and tumor microenvironment in early-stage breast cancer: different mechanisms for early recurrence after mastectomy and chemotherapy on ductal and lobular types

Background: The most common type of breast cancer is the ductal type (IDC), followed by lobular type (ILC). Surgery is the main therapy for early-stage breast cancer. Adjuvant chemotherapy might be given to those at high risk of recurrence. Recurrence is still possible after mastectomy and chemotherapy and most often occurs in the first two years. We aimed to determine the mechanisms in early local recurrence in both types. Methods: We used an observational method with a cross-sectional study design. The samples were patients with early-stage IDC and ILC, who underwent modified radical mastectomy (MRM) and got adjuvant chemotherapy with taxan and anthracycline base, and experienced recurrence in the first two years after surgery. The materials in this study were paraffin blocks from surgical specimens; we examined vimentin, α-SMA and MMP1, PDGF and CD95 by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Data analysis was done using OpenEpi 3.0.1 and EZR. We used pathway analysis with linear regression. Results: There were 25 samples with local recurrence and 25 samples without recurrence in the ductal type group. The lobular type group consisted of six subjects without recurrence and seven with recurrence. There were significant differences in the expression of vimentin (p=0.000 and 0.021, respectively), PDGF (p=0.000 and 0.002) and CD95 (p=0.000 and 0.045) in ductal and lobular cancer types, respectively. MMP1 (p=0.000) and α-SMA (p=0.000) only showed a significant difference in the ductal type. The pathway analysis showed that in the ductal type, the mechanism of recurrence was enabled by two factors: α-SMA and CD95. Meanwhile, for the lobular type, the recurrence mechanism was through the CD95 pathway. Conclusions: Local recurrence in early-stage IDC and ILC had different mechanisms.  These findings are expected to make cancer treatment in both types more focused and efficient.

A statistical learning method for simultaneous copy number estimation and subclone clustering with single cell sequencing data

The availability of single cell sequencing (SCS) enables us to assess intra-tumor heterogeneity and identify cellular subclones without the confounding effect of mixed cells. Copy number aberrations (CNAs) have been commonly used to identify subclones in SCS data using various clustering methods, since cells comprising a subpopulation are found to share genetic profile. However, currently available methods may generate spurious results (e.g., falsely identified CNAs) in the procedure of CNA detection, hence diminishing the accuracy of subclone identification from a large complex cell population. In this study, we developed a CNA detection method based on a fused lasso model, referred to as FLCNA, which can simultaneously identify subclones in single cell DNA sequencing (scDNA-seq) data. Spike-in simulations were conducted to evaluate the clustering and CNA detection performance of FLCNA benchmarking to existing copy number estimation methods (SCOPE, HMMcopy) in combination with the existing and commonly used clustering methods. Interestingly, application of FLCNA to a real scDNA-seq dataset of breast cancer revealed remarkably different genomic variation patterns in neoadjuvant chemotherapy treated samples and pre-treated samples. We show that FLCNA is a practical and powerful method in subclone identification and CNA detection with scDNA-seq data.

An Insight into Molecular Targets of Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis

Brain metastasis is one of the major reasons of death in breast cancer (BC) patients, significantly affecting the quality of life, physical activity, and interdependence on several individuals. There is no clear evidence in scientific literature that depicts an exact mechanism relating to brain metastasis in BC patients. The tendency to develop breast cancer brain metastases (BCBMs) differs by the BC subtype, varying from almost half with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) (HER2^- ER^- PR^-), one-third with HER2⁺ (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive, and around one-tenth with luminal subclass (ER⁺ (estrogen positive) or PR⁺ (progesterone positive)) breast cancer. This review focuses on the molecular pathways as possible therapeutic targets of BCBMs and their potent drugs under different stages of clinical trial. In view of increased numbers of clinical trials and systemic studies, the scientific community is hopeful of unraveling the underlying mechanisms of BCBMs that will help in designing an effective treatment regimen with multiple molecular targets.

Lin28 Regulates Cancer Cell Stemness for Tumour Progression

Tumours develop therapy resistance through complex mechanisms, one of which is that cancer stem cell (CSC) populations within the tumours present self-renewable capability and phenotypical plasticity to endure therapy-induced stress conditions and allow tumour progression to the therapy-resistant state. Developing therapeutic strategies to cope with CSCs requires a thorough understanding of the critical drivers and molecular mechanisms underlying the aforementioned processes. One such hub regulator of stemness is Lin28, an RNA-binding protein. Lin28 blocks the synthesis of let-7, a tumour-suppressor microRNA, and acts as a global regulator of cell differentiation and proliferation. Lin28also targets messenger RNAs and regulates protein translation. In this review, we explain the role of the Lin28/let-7 axis in establishing stemness, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and glucose metabolism reprogramming. We also highlight the role of Lin28 in therapy-resistant prostate cancer progression and discuss the emergence of Lin28-targeted therapeutics and screening methods.

Lidocaine enhances the efficacy of palbociclib in triple-negative breast cancer

The use of anesthetics in the surgical resection of tumors may influence the prognosis of cancer patients. Lidocaine, a local anesthetic, is known to act as a chemosensitizer and relieve pain in some cancers. In addition, palbociclib, a potent cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4/6 inhibitor, has been approved for chemotherapy of advanced breast cancer. However, recent studies have revealed the acquired resistance of breast cancer cells to palbociclib. Therefore, the development of combination therapies that can extend the efficacy of palbociclib or delay resistance is crucial. This study investigated whether lidocaine would enhance the efficacy of palbociclib in breast cancer. Lidocaine synergistically suppressed the growth and proliferation of breast cancer cells by palbociclib. The combination treatment showed an increased cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase by decreasing retinoblastoma protein (Rb) and E2F1 expression. In addition, it increased apoptosis by loss of mitochondrial membrane potential as observed by increases in cytochrome c release and inhibition of mitochondria-mediated protein expression. Additionally, it significantly reduced epithelial-mesenchymal transition and PI3K/AKT/GSK3β signaling. In orthotopic breast cancer models, this combination treatment significantly inhibited tumor growth and increased tumor cell apoptosis compared to those treated with a single drug. Taken together, this study demonstrates that the combination of palbociclib and lidocaine has a synergistic anti-cancer effect on breast cancer cells by the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT/GSK3β pathway, suggesting that this combination could potentially be an effective therapy for breast cancer.

Breast Cancer Metastasis: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide. Metastasis is the leading cause of high mortality in most cancers. Although predicting the early stage of breast cancer before metastasis can increase the survival rate, breast cancer is often discovered or diagnosed after metastasis has occurred. In general, breast cancer has a poor prognosis because it starts as a local disease and can spread to lymph nodes or distant organs, contributing to a significant impediment in breast cancer treatment. Metastatic breast cancer cells acquire aggressive characteristics from the tumor microenvironment (TME) through several mechanisms including epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) and epigenetic regulation. Therefore, understanding the nature and mechanism of breast cancer metastasis can facilitate the development of targeted therapeutics focused on metastasis. This review discusses the mechanisms leading to metastasis and the current therapies to improve the early diagnosis and prognosis in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

Forkhead box A2 transcriptionally activates hsa-let-7 g to inhibit hypoxia-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition by targeting c14orf28 in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS

This study aimed to investigate the effect of Forkhead Box A2 (FOXA2) on migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of colorectal cancer (CRC) cells in hypoxia and explore its related molecular mechanisms.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A cellular hypoxia model was established, and the FOXA2 overexpression vector was transfected into SW480 and HCT116 cells. Cell apoptosis, migration, and invasion were examined by flow cytometry, scratch test, and transwell-invasion assay. Next, the hsa-let-7 g gene expression was detected by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Relative protein levels of HIF-1, FOXA2, c14orf28, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and Vimentin were detected by western blot.

RESULTS

Hypoxia-exposed CRC cells showed a significantly increased cell apoptosis rate, as well as enhanced cell invasion and migration abilities compared with the cells in normoxia. FOXA2 overexpression induced apoptosis and inhibited hypoxia-exposed CRC cell migration and invasion. Additionally, FOXA2 overexpression led to the significantly increased hsa-let-7 g and E-cadherin expression, as well as the decreased c14orf28, N-cadherin, and Vimentin expression in hypoxic CRC cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that FOXA2 could affect the apoptosis, migration, invasion, and EMT of CRC cells under hypoxia conditions. FOXA2 transcriptionally activates hsa-let-7 g to inhibit hypoxia-induced EMT by targeting c14orf28.

Tubulin Carboxypeptidase Activity Promotes Focal Gelatin Degradation in Breast Tumor Cells and Induces Apoptosis in Breast Epithelial Cells That Is Overcome by Oncogenic Signaling

Simple Summary

The recent discovery of the genetic identity of the tubulin carboxypeptidase (TCP) provides a unique opportunity to study the role of the detyrosination of α-tubulin (deTyr-Tub), as performed by the TCP, in breast epithelial cells and breast cancer cells. Previous research has shown that elevated deTyr-Tub conveys a poor prognosis in breast cancer and is upregulated in a coordinated manner at the invasive margin of patient tumor samples. Using TCP expression constructs, we have shown that increased deTyr-Tub promotes apoptosis in normal breast epithelial cells, that does not occur in the same cells with an oncogenic KRas mutation or Bcl-2/Bcl-xL overexpression. Furthermore, the addition of the TCP to the breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and Hs578t, also harboring Ras mutations, leads to increased focal gelatin degradation.

Abstract

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of the microtubule network impart differential functions across normal cell types and their cancerous counterparts. The removal of the C-terminal tyrosine of α-tubulin (deTyr-Tub) as performed by the tubulin carboxypeptidase (TCP) is of particular interest in breast epithelial and breast cancer cells. The recent discovery of the genetic identity of the TCP to be a vasohibin (VASH1/2) coupled with a small vasohibin-binding protein (SVBP) allows for the functional effect of this tubulin PTM to be directly tested for the first time. Our studies revealed the immortalized breast epithelial cell line MCF10A undergoes apoptosis following transfection with TCP constructs, but the addition of oncogenic KRas or Bcl-2/Bcl-xL overexpression prevents subsequent apoptotic induction in the MCF10A background. Functionally, an increase in deTyr-Tub via TCP transfection in MDA-MB-231 and Hs578t breast cancer cells leads to enhanced focal gelatin degradation. Given the elevated deTyr-Tub at invasive tumor fronts and the correlation with poor breast cancer survival, these new discoveries help clarify how the TCP synergizes with oncogene activation, increases focal gelatin degradation, and may correspond to increased tumor cell invasion. These connections could inform more specific microtubule-directed therapies to target deTyr-tubulin.

At the Intersection of Cardiology and Oncology: TGFβ as a Clinically Translatable Therapy for TNBC Treatment and as a Major Regulator of Post-Chemotherapy Cardiomyopathy

Simple Summary

Specific/targeted therapies have been shown to be effective in the treatment of certain cancers. Unfortunately, there is currently no targeted therapy for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), which is why this subtype of breast cancer is associated with poor patient prognosis. While there is an immense focus on the development of new therapies, the issue of cardiotoxicity following chemotherapeutic treatment is commonly overlooked, despite its role as a leading cause of mortality in cancer survivors. This review aims to discuss the connection of TGF-β signaling and its role in modulating cardiac fibrosis and remodeling, as well as its role in TNBC tumor progression, cancer stem cell enrichment, chemoresistance and relapse. Together, we highlight the modulation of TGF-β as a method to target two of the greatest causes of morbidity and mortality in breast cancer patients.

Abstract

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer that accounts for the majority of breast cancer-related deaths due to the lack of specific targets for effective treatments. While there is immense focus on the development of novel therapies for TNBC treatment, a persistent and critical issue is the rate of heart failure and cardiomyopathy, which is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity amongst cancer survivors. In this review, we highlight mechanisms of post-chemotherapeutic cardiotoxicity exposure, evaluate how this is assessed clinically and highlight the transforming growth factor-beta family (TGF-β) pathway and its significance as a mediator of cardiomyopathy. We also highlight recent findings demonstrating TGF-β inhibition as a potent method to prevent cardiac remodeling, fibrosis and cardiomyopathy. We describe how dysregulation of the TGF-β pathway is associated with negative patient outcomes across 32 types of cancer, including TNBC. We then highlight how TGF-β modulation may be a potent method to target mesenchymal (CD44⁺/CD24⁻) and epithelial (ALDH^high) cancer stem cell (CSC) populations in TNBC models. CSCs are associated with tumorigenesis, metastasis, relapse, resistance and diminished patient prognosis; however, due to plasticity and differential regulation, these populations remain difficult to target and continue to present a major barrier to successful therapy. TGF-β inhibition represents an intersection of two fields: cardiology and oncology. Through the inhibition of cardiomyopathy, cardiac damage and heart failure may be prevented, and through CSC targeting, patient prognoses may be improved. Together, both approaches, if successfully implemented, would target the two greatest causes of cancer-related morbidity in patients and potentially lead to a breakthrough therapy.

The Role of ATRA, Natural Ligand of Retinoic Acid Receptors, on EMT-Related Proteins in Breast Cancer: Minireview

The knowledge of the structure, function, and abundance of specific proteins related to the EMT process is essential for developing effective diagnostic approaches to cancer with the perspective of diagnosis and therapy of malignancies. The success of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) differentiation therapy in acute promyelocytic leukemia has stimulated studies in the treatment of other tumors with ATRA. This review will discuss the impact of ATRA use, emphasizing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) proteins in breast cancer, of which metastasis and recurrence are major causes of death.

Epigenetic Reprogramming and Landscape of Transcriptomic Interactions: Impending Therapeutic Interference of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer in Molecular Medicine

The mechanisms governing the development and progression of cancers are believed to be the consequence of hereditary deformities and epigenetic modifications. Accordingly, epigenetics has become an incredible and progressively explored field of research to discover better prevention and therapy for neoplasia, especially triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). It represents 15-20% of all invasive breast cancers and will, in general, have bellicose histological highlights and poor clinical outcomes. In the early phases of triple-negative breast carcinogenesis, epigenetic deregulation modifies chromatin structure and influences the plasticity of cells. It up-keeps the oncogenic reprogramming of malignant progenitor cells with the acquisition of unrestrained selfrenewal capacities. Genomic impulsiveness in TNBC prompts mutations, copy number variations, as well as genetic rearrangements, while epigenetic remodeling includes an amendment by DNA methylation, histone modification, and noncoding RNAs of gene expression profiles. It is currently evident that epigenetic mechanisms assume a significant part in the pathogenesis, maintenance, and therapeutic resistance of TNBC. Although TNBC is a heterogeneous malaise that is perplexing to describe and treat, the ongoing explosion of genetic and epigenetic research will help to expand these endeavors. Latest developments in transcriptome analysis have reformed our understanding of human diseases, including TNBC at the molecular medicine level. It is appealing to envision transcriptomic biomarkers to comprehend tumor behavior more readily regarding its cellular microenvironment. Understanding these essential biomarkers and molecular changes will propel our capability to treat TNBC adequately. This review will depict the different aspects of epigenetics and the landscape of transcriptomics in triple-negative breast carcinogenesis and their impending application for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment decision with the view of molecular medicine.

RosettaSX: Reliable gene expression signature scoring of cancer models and patients

Gene expression signatures have proven their potential to characterize important cancer phenomena like oncogenic signaling pathway activities, cellular origins of tumors, or immune cell infiltration into tumor tissues. Large collections of expression signatures provide the basis for their application to data sets, but the applicability of each signature in a new experimental context must be reassessed. We apply a methodology that utilizes the previously developed concept of coherent expression of genes in signatures to identify translatable signatures before scoring their activity in single tumors. We present a web interface (www.rosettasx.com) that applies our methodology to expression data from the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopaedia and The Cancer Genome Atlas. Configurable heat maps visualize per-cancer signature scores for 293 hand-curated literature-derived gene sets representing a wide range of cancer-relevant transcriptional modules and phenomena. The platform allows users to complement heatmaps of signature scores with molecular information on SNVs, CNVs, gene expression, gene dependency, and protein abundance or to analyze own signatures. Clustered heatmaps and further plots to drill-down results support users in studying oncological processes in cancer subtypes, thereby providing a rich resource to explore how mechanisms of cancer interact with each other as demonstrated by exemplary analyses of 2 cancer types.

Histone deacetylase 1 facilitates aerobic glycolysis and growth of endometrial cancer

The deregulation of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) is reportedly involved in the progression of several cancer types. However, its function in endometrial cancer remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to clarify the role of HDAC1 in aerobic glycolysis and the progression of endometrial cancer. Lentiviral vector transfection was used to up- and downregulate HDAC1 expression in HEC-1-A endometrial cancer cells. The effects of HDAC1 on cellular proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasiveness and tumorigenesis were determined by CCK-8, flow cytometry, wound-healing, transwell chamber and in vivo tumor formation experiments, respectively. HDAC1 level was significantly increased in endometrial cancer tissues and cells, and its high expression was associated with advanced clinicopathological progression. HEC-1-A cell proliferation, invasiveness, migration and tumorigenesis were enhanced, and apoptosis was inhibited when HDAC1 was overexpressed. Moreover, upregulation of HDAC1 significantly promoted the epithelial-mesenchymal transition of HEC-1-A cells, and increased glucose consumption, lactate secretion and ATP levels. Collectively, the present study revealed that HDAC1 promoted the aerobic glycolysis and progression of endometrial cancer, which may provide a potential target for endometrial cancer treatment.

Epigenetic Regulation of Breast Cancer Stem Cells Contributing to Carcinogenesis and Therapeutic Implications

Globally, breast cancer has remained the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer death among women. Breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous and phenotypically diverse group of diseases, which require different selection of treatments. Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), a small subset of cancer cells with stem cell-like properties, play essential roles in breast cancer progression, recurrence, metastasis, chemoresistance and treatments. Epigenetics is defined as inheritable changes in gene expression without alteration in DNA sequence. Epigenetic regulation includes DNA methylation and demethylation, as well as histone modifications. Aberrant epigenetic regulation results in carcinogenesis. In this review, the mechanism of epigenetic regulation involved in carcinogenesis, therapeutic resistance and metastasis of BCSCs will be discussed, and finally, the therapies targeting these biomarkers will be presented.

FOXH1 promotes lung cancer progression by activating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The expression of forkhead box protein H1 (FOXH1) is frequently upregulated in various cancers. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the association between FOXH1 expression and lung cancer progression still remain poorly understood. Thus, the main objective of this study is to explore the role of FOXH1 in lung cancer.

METHODS

The Cancer Genome Atlas dataset was used to investigate FOXH1 expression in lung cancer tissues, and the Kaplan-Meier plotter dataset was used to determine the role of FOXH1 in patient prognosis. A549 and PC9 cells were transfected with short hairpin RNA targeting FOXH1 mRNA. The Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation, soft agar, wound healing, transwell invasion and flow cytometry assays were performed to evaluate proliferation, migration and invasion of lung cancer cells. Tumorigenicity was examined in a BALB/c nude mice model. Western blot analysis was performed to assess the molecular mechanisms, and β-catenin activity was measured by a luciferase reporter system assay.

RESULTS

Higher expression level of FOXH1 was observed in tumor tissue than in normal tissue, and this was associated with poor overall survival. Knockdown of FOXH1 significantly inhibited lung cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and cycle. In addition, the mouse xenograft model showed that knockdown of FOXH1 suppressed tumor growth in vivo. Further experiments revealed that FOXH1 depletion inhibited the epithelial-mesenchymal transition of lung cancer cells by downregulating the expression of mesenchymal markers (Snail, Slug, matrix metalloproteinase-2, N-cadherin, and Vimentin) and upregulating the expression of an epithelial marker (E-cadherin). Moreover, knockdown of FOXH1 significantly downregulated the activity of β-catenin and its downstream targets, p-GSK-3β and cyclin D1.

CONCLUSION

FOXH1 exerts oncogenic functions in lung cancer through regulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. FOXH1 might be a potential therapeutic target for patients with certain types of lung cancer.

Targeting interleukin 6 signaling by monoclonal antibody siltuximab on cholangiocarcinoma

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Cholangiocarcinoma has an unimproved prognosis. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) has an oncogenic potential in some cancer diseases. However, the role of IL-6 in cholangiocarcinoma carcinogenesis is not well understood. The current study investigated the role of IL-6 signaling in cholangiocarcinoma carcinogenesis and efficacy of siltuximab treatment on cholangiocarcinoma in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

The expression of IL-6 was analyzed on human cholangiocarcinoma cell lines and murine and human cholangiocarcinoma tissues, using reverse transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. In addition, the effect of anti-IL-6 chimeric monoclonal antibody, siltuximab, was investigated in vitro by proliferation, migration, and two-dimensional and three-dimensional invasion assays and in vivo by xenograft mouse model. Western blot was applied to study the molecular alteration.

RESULTS

Our result shows high expression of IL-6 in human cholangiocarcinoma cells, and IL-6 stimulants enhance cholangiocarcinoma cell proliferation. In addition, murine and human cholangiocarcinoma tissues express significantly higher levels of IL-6, compared with adjacent non-tumor tissues. On the cholangiocarcinoma engineered mouse model, IL-6 level is associated with tumor volume. Taken together, our data indicate an oncogenic potential of IL-6 in cholangiocarcinoma carcinogenesis. Siltuximab sufficiently abrogates IL-6 signaling and inhibits cholangiocarcinoma progression in vitro and in vivo. The results additionally indicate a relative alteration of IL-6 signaling and its molecular targets, such as STAT3, Wnt/β-catenin, and mesenchymal markers.

CONCLUSIONS

Interleukin 6 plays an essential role in cholangiocarcinoma carcinogenesis, and siltuximab has the potential to be considered as a new treatment option for cholangiocarcinoma patients.

miR-770-5p regulates EMT and invasion in TNBC cells by targeting DNMT3A

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are shown to regulate various processes in cancer like motility and invasion that are key features of the metastatic triple negative breast cancer (TNBCs). Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the well-defined cellular transitioning processes characterized with reduced E-cadherin expression and increased mesenchymal molecules such as Vimentin or Snail thereby gives the cells mobility and invasive character. Aberrant DNA methylation by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) plays an important role in carcinogenesis. It is well known that DNMTs are required for transcriptional silencing of tumor-associated genes. DNMT3A-induced promoter hypermethylation of E-cadherin has also been known to improve cancer metastasis. Our results indicated that miR-770-5p could downregulate Vimentin and Snail expression levels, while increasing or restoring the expression of E-Cadherin hence, leading to inhibition of EMT phenotypes along with motility and invasion. Specifically, we showed that overexpression of miR-770-5p restored the expression of E-Cadherin in MDA-MB-231 cells via directly targeting DNMT3A. We also observed the change in the spindled shapes showing the loss of mesenchymal characteristics and gain of epithelial phenotype in miR-770-5p overexpressing cells. When considered together, our results show that miR-770-5p could effectively inhibit invasion potential driven by EMT.

Glucose-limiting conditions induce an invasive population of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells with increased connexin 43 expression and membrane localization

Gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) is a homeostatic process mediated by membrane channels composed of a protein family known as connexins. Alterations to channel activity can modulate suppression or facilitation of cancer progression. These varying roles are influenced by the cancer cell genetic profile and the context-dependent mechanisms of a dynamic extracellular environment that encompasses fluctuations to nutrient availability. To better explore the effects of altered cellular metabolism on GJIC in breast cancer, we generated a derivative of the triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 optimized for growth in low-glucose. Reduced availability of glucose is commonly encountered during tumor development and leads to metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells. MDA-MB-231 low-glucose adapted cells exhibited a larger size with improved cell–cell contact and upregulation of cadherin-11. Additionally, increased protein levels of connexin 43 and greater plasma membrane localization were observed with a corresponding improvement in GJIC activity compared to the parental cell line. Since GJIC has been shown to affect cellular invasion in multiple cancer cell types, we evaluated the invasive qualities of these cells using multiple three-dimensional Matrigel growth models. Results of these experiments demonstrated a significantly more invasive phenotype. Moreover, a decrease in invasion was noted when GJIC was inhibited. Our results indicate a potential response of triple-negative breast cancer cells to reduced glucose availability that results in changes to GJIC and invasiveness. Delineation of this relationship may help elucidate mechanisms by which altered cancer cell metabolism affects GJIC and how cancer cells respond to nutrient availability in this regard.

Indication of high lipid content in epithelial-mesenchymal transitions of breast tissues

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a crucial process in cancer progression and metastasis. Study of metabolic changes during the EMT process is important in seeking to understand the biochemical changes associated with cancer progression, not least in scoping for therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting EMT. Due to the potential for high sensitivity and specificity, Raman spectroscopy was used here to study the metabolic changes associated with EMT in human breast cancer tissue. For Raman spectroscopy measurements, tissue from 23 patients were collected, comprising non-lesional, EMT and non-EMT formalin-fixed and paraffin embedded breast cancer samples. Analysis was made in the fingerprint Raman spectra region (600-1800 cm-1) best associated with cancer progression biochemical changes in lipid, protein and nucleic acids. The ANOVA test followed by the Tukey's multiple comparisons test were conducted to see if there existed differences between non-lesional, EMT and non-EMT breast tissue for Raman spectroscopy measurements. Results revealed that significant differences were evident in terms of intensity between the non-lesional and EMT samples, as well as the EMT and non-EMT samples. Multivariate analysis involving independent component analysis, Principal component analysis and non-negative least square were used to analyse the Raman spectra data. The results show significant differences between EMT and non-EMT cancers in lipid, protein, and nucleic acids. This study demonstrated the capability of Raman spectroscopy supported by multivariate analysis in analysing metabolic changes in EMT breast cancer tissue.

EpCAM-Mediated Cellular Plasticity Promotes Radiation Resistance and Metastasis in Breast Cancer

Substantial number of breast cancer (BC) patients undergoing radiation therapy (RT) develop local recurrence over time. During RT therapy, cells can gradually acquire resistance implying adaptive radioresistance. Here we probe the mechanisms underlying this acquired resistance by first establishing radioresistant lines using ZR-75-1 and MCF-7 BC cells through repeated exposure to sub-lethal fractionated dose of 2Gy up to 15 fractions. Radioresistance was found to be associated with increased cancer stem cells (CSCs), and elevated EpCAM expression in the cell population. A retrospective analysis of TCGA dataset indicated positive correlation of high EpCAM expression with poor response to RT. Intriguingly, elevated EpCAM expression in the radioresistant CSCs raise the bigger question of how this biomarker expression contributes during radiation treatment in BC. Thereafter, we establish EpCAM overexpressing ZR-75-1 cells (ZR-75-1^EpCAM), which conferred radioresistance, increased stemness through enhanced AKT activation and induced a hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal phenotype with enhanced contractility and invasiveness. In line with these observations, orthotopic implantation of ZR-75-1^EpCAM cells exhibited faster growth, lesser sensitivity to radiation therapy and increased lung metastasis than baseline ZR-75-1 cells in mice. In summary, this study shows that similar to radioresistant BC cells, EpCAM overexpressing cells show high degree of plasticity and heterogeneity which ultimately induces radioresistant and metastatic behavior of cancer cells, thus aggravating the disease condition.

Cisplatin prevents breast cancer metastasis through blocking early EMT and retards cancer growth together with paclitaxel

Cancer growth is usually accompanied by metastasis which kills most cancer patients. Here we aim to study the effect of cisplatin at different doses on breast cancer growth and metastasis.

Methods: We used cisplatin to treat breast cancer cells, then detected the migration of cells and the changes of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers by migration assay, Western blot, and immunofluorescent staining. Next, we analyzed the changes of RNA expression of genes by RNA-seq and confirmed the binding of activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) to cytoskeleton related genes by ChIP-seq. Thereafter, we combined cisplatin and paclitaxel in a neoadjuvant setting to treat xenograft mouse models. Furthermore, we analyzed the association of disease prognosis with cytoskeletal genes and ATF3 by clinical data analysis.

Results: When administered at a higher dose (6 mg/kg), cisplatin inhibits both cancer growth and metastasis, yet with strong side effects, whereas a lower dose (2 mg/kg) cisplatin blocks cancer metastasis without obvious killing effects. Cisplatin inhibits cancer metastasis through blocking early steps of EMT. It antagonizes transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling through suppressing transcription of many genes involved in cytoskeleton reorganization and filopodia formation which occur early in EMT and are responsible for cancer metastasis. Mechanistically, TGFβ and fibronectin-1 (FN1) constitute a positive reciprocal regulation loop that is critical for activating TGFβ/SMAD3 signaling, which is repressed by cisplatin induced expression of ATF3. Furthermore, neoadjuvant administration of cisplatin at 2 mg/kg in conjunction with paclitaxel inhibits cancer growth and blocks metastasis without causing obvious side effects by inhibiting colonization of cancer cells in the target organs.

Conclusion: Thus, cisplatin prevents breast cancer metastasis through blocking early EMT, and the combination of cisplatin and paclitaxel represents a promising therapy for killing breast cancer and blocking tumor metastasis.

Dermal fibroblasts and triple-negative mammary epithelial cancer cells differentially stiffen their local matrix

The bulk measurement of extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness is commonly used in mechanobiology. However, past studies by our group show that peri-cellular stiffness is quite heterogeneous and divergent from the bulk. We use optical tweezers active microrheology (AMR) to quantify how two phenotypically distinct migratory cell lines establish dissimilar patterns of peri-cellular stiffness. Dermal fibroblasts (DFs) and triple-negative human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 (MDAs) were embedded within type 1 collagen (T1C) hydrogels polymerized at two concentrations: 1.0 mg/ml and 1.5 mg/ml. We found DFs increase the local stiffness of 1.0 mg/ml T1C hydrogels but, surprisingly, do not alter the stiffness of 1.5 mg/ml T1C hydrogels. In contrast, MDAs predominantly do not stiffen T1C hydrogels as compared to cell-free controls. The results suggest that MDAs adapt to the bulk ECM stiffness, while DFs regulate local stiffness to levels they intrinsically prefer. In other experiments, cells were treated with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), glucose, or ROCK inhibitor Y27632, which have known effects on DFs and MDAs related to migration, proliferation, and contractility. The results show that TGF-β1 alters stiffness anisotropy, while glucose increases stiffness magnitude around DFs but not MDAs and Y27632 treatment inhibits cell-mediated stiffening. Both cell lines exhibit an elongated morphology and local stiffness anisotropy, where the stiffer axis depends on the cell line, T1C concentration, and treatment. In summary, our findings demonstrate that AMR reveals otherwise masked mechanical properties such as spatial gradients and anisotropy, which are known to affect cell behavior at the macro-scale. The same properties manifest with similar magnitude around single cells.

CDKL2 Is Associated with HER2 Status and Overall Survival in Gastric Cancer: Comparative Analysis of CDKL2 Protein Expression and Gene Copy Number

Background

Cyclin-dependent kinase-like 2 (CDKL2) is a member of the CDKL family and recognized as a novel regulator of epithelial-mesenchymal transition of breast cancer cells, but its role has not been explored in gastric cancer (GC). This study was to characterize the CDKL2 protein expression and gene copy number in relation to human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status, clinicopathological features, and overall survival (OS) in GC.

Methods

This study detected the CDKL2 protein expression and gene copy number by immunochemistry (IHC) and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), respectively, in 334 GC samples. HER2 status was determined according to established criteria. Associations of the CDKL2 protein expression and gene copy number with OS in GC were evaluated, and the association between CDKL2 mRNA expression and OS in GC was also analyzed using TCGA data.

Results

The detection results suggested that 34.1% cases showed high CDKL2 protein expression; 11.4% cases had ≥5 copies of CDKL2 gene or a ratio of CDKL2 to chromosome of ≥2. The CDKL2 protein expression was markedly correlated with its gene copy number. High protein expression and high gene copy number were both significantly associated with positive HER2 status, and they both could predicted a shorter OS, although not as independent markers suggested by the multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression analysis. The TCGA data indicated that higher CDKL2 mRNA level also predicted a shorter OS in GC.

Conclusions

The combined detection of the CDKL2 protein level and gene copy number could be of important value in predicting HER2 status and prognosis of patients with GC.

Proteomic analysis of circulating extracellular vesicles identifies potential markers of breast cancer progression, recurrence, and response

Proteomic profiling of circulating small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) represents a promising, noninvasive approach for early detection and therapeutic monitoring of breast cancer (BC). We describe a relatively low-cost, fast, and reliable method to isolate sEVs from plasma of BC patients and analyze their protein content by semiquantitative proteomics. sEV-enriched fractions were isolated from plasma of healthy controls and BC patients at different disease stages before and after surgery. Proteomic analysis of sEV-enriched fractions using reverse phase protein array revealed a signature of seven proteins that differentiated BC patients from healthy individuals, of which FAK and fibronectin displayed high diagnostic accuracy. The size of sEVs was significantly reduced in advanced disease stage, concomitant with a stage-specific protein signature. Furthermore, we observed protein-based distinct clusters of healthy controls, chemotherapy-treated and untreated postsurgery samples, as well as a predictor of high risk of cancer relapse, suggesting that the applied methods warrant development for advanced diagnostics.

Ritchie A, Onion D, Clarke PA, Allegrucci C, Grabowska AM. A 3D Heterotypic Breast Cancer Model Demonstrates a Role for Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Driving a Proliferative and Invasive Phenotype

Previous indirect 2D co-culture studies have demonstrated that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) promote breast cancer (BC) progression through secretion of paracrine factors including growth factors, cytokines and chemokines. In order to investigate this aspect of the tumour microenvironment in a more relevant 3D co-culture model, spheroids incorporating breast cancer cells (BCCs), both cell lines and primary BCCs expanded as patient-derived xenografts, and MSCs were established. MSCs in co-cultures were shown to enhance proliferation of estrogen receptor (ER)/progesterone receptor (PR)-positive BCCs. In addition, co-culture resulted in downregulation of E-cadherin in parallel with upregulation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-relation transcription factor, SNAIL. Cytoplasmic relocalization of ski-related novel protein N (SnON), a negative regulator of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signalling, and of β-catenin, involved in a number of pathways including Wnt signalling, was also observed in BCCs in co-cultures in contrast to monocultures. In addition, the β-catenin inhibitor, 3-[[(4-methylphenyl)sulfonyl]amino]-benzoic acid methyl ester (MSAB), mediated reduced growth and invasion in the co-cultures. This study highlights the potential role for SnON as a biomarker for BC invasiveness, and the importance of interactions between TGF-β and Wnt signalling, involving SnON. Such pathways may contribute towards identifying possible targets for therapeutic intervention in BC patients.

miRNAs in Health and Disease: A Focus on the Breast Cancer Metastatic Cascade towards the Brain

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that mainly act by binding to target genes to regulate their expression. Due to the multitude of genes regulated by miRNAs they have been subject of extensive research in the past few years. This state-of-the-art review summarizes the current knowledge about miRNAs and illustrates their role as powerful regulators of physiological processes. Moreover, it highlights their aberrant expression in disease, including specific cancer types and the differential hosting-metastases preferences that influence several steps of tumorigenesis. Considering the incidence of breast cancer and that the metastatic disease is presently the major cause of death in women, emphasis is put in the role of miRNAs in breast cancer and in the regulation of the different steps of the metastatic cascade. Furthermore, we depict their involvement in the cascade of events underlying breast cancer brain metastasis formation and development. Collectively, this review shall contribute to a better understanding of the uniqueness of the biologic roles of miRNAs in these processes, to the awareness of miRNAs as new and reliable biomarkers and/or of therapeutic targets, which can change the landscape of a poor prognosis and low survival rates condition of advanced breast cancer patients.

Association of lncRNA SH3PXD2A-AS1 with preeclampsia and its function in invasion and migration of placental trophoblast cells

Accumulating evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of preeclampsia involves poor placentation caused by insufficient trophoblast invasion and impaired uterine spiral artery remodeling, yet the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. We carried out transcriptome profiling on placentae from preeclamptic patients and normal subjects, and identified about four hundred long non-coding RNAs differentially expressed in placentae of patients with early-onset severe preeclampsia. Here, we report our identification of lncRNA SH3PXD2A-AS1 as a potential causal factor for this disease and its downstream pathways involved in placentation. We found that expression level of SH3PXD2A-AS1 in the placentae is positively correlated with clinical severity of the patients. We demonstrated that SH3PXD2A-AS1 inhibited invasion and migration through recruiting CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) to the promoters of SH3PXD2A and CCR7 to inhibit their transcription. Therefore, we conclude that the upregulation of lncRNA SH3PXD2A-AS1 may contribute to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia through prohibiting trophoblast invasion during placentation.

Comparative Analysis of the Development of Acquired Radioresistance in Canine and Human Mammary Cancer Cell Lines

Research using in vitro canine mammary cancer cell lines and naturally-occurring canine mammary tumors are not only fundamental models used to advance the understanding of cancer in veterinary patients, but are also regarded as excellent translational models of human breast cancer. Human breast cancer is commonly treated with radiotherapy; however, tumor response depends on both innate radiosensitivity and on tumor repopulation by cells that develop radioresistance. Comparative canine and human studies investigating the mechanisms of radioresistance may lead to novel cancer treatments that benefit both species. In this study, we developed a canine mammary cancer (REM-134) radioresistant (RR) cell line and investigated the cellular mechanisms related to the development of acquired radioresistance. We performed a comparative analysis of this resistant model with our previously developed human breast cancer radioresistant cell lines (MCF-7 RR, ZR-751 RR, and MDA-MB-231 RR), characterizing inherent differences through genetic, molecular, and cell biology approaches. RR cells demonstrated enhanced invasion/migration capabilities, with phenotypic evidence suggestive of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Similarities were identified between the REM-134 RR, MCF-7 RR, and ZR-751 RR cell lines in relation to the pattern of expression of both epithelial and mesenchymal genes, in addition to WNT, PI3K, and MAPK pathway activation. Following the development of radioresistance, transcriptomic data indicated that parental MCF-7 and ZR-751 cell lines changed from a luminal A classification to basal/HER2-overexpressing (MCF-7 RR) and normal-like/HER2-overexpressing (ZR-751 RR). These radioresistant subtypes were similar to the REM-134 and REM-134 RR cell lines, which were classified as HER2-overexpressing. To our knowledge, our study is the first to generate a canine mammary cancer RR cell line model and provide a comparative genetic and phenotypic analysis of the mechanisms of acquired radioresistance between canine and human cancer cell lines. We demonstrate that the cellular processes that occur with the development of acquired radioresistance are similar between the human and canine cell lines; our results therefore suggest that the canine model is appropriate to study both human and canine radioresistant mammary cancers, and that treatment strategies used in human medicine may also be applicable to veterinary patients.

Fine-tuning the metabolic rewiring and adaptation of translational machinery during an epithelial-mesenchymal transition in breast cancer cells

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND

During breast cancer progression, the epithelial to mesenchymal transition has been associated with metastasis and endocrine therapy resistance; however, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. To gain insight into this process, we studied the transition undergone by MCF7-derived cells, which is driven by the constitutive nuclear expression of a MKL1 variant devoid of the actin-binding domain (MKL1 ΔN200). We characterized the adaptive changes that occur during the MKL1-induced cellular model and focused on regulation of translation machinery and metabolic adaptation.

METHODS

We performed a genome-wide analysis at the transcriptional and translational level using ribosome profiling complemented with RNA-Seq and analyzed the expression of components of the translation machinery and enzymes involved in energy metabolism. NGS data were correlated with metabolomic measurements and quantification of specific mRNAs extracted from polysomes and western blots.

RESULTS

Our results reveal the expression profiles of a luminal to basal-like state in accordance with an epithelial to mesenchymal transition. During the transition, the synthesis of ribosomal proteins and that of many translational factors was upregulated. This overexpression of the translational machinery appears to be regulated at the translational level. Our results indicate an increase of ribosome biogenesis and translation activity. We detected an extensive metabolic rewiring occurring in an already "Warburg-like" context, in which enzyme isoform switches and metabolic shunts indicate a crucial role of HIF-1α along with other master regulatory factors. Furthermore, we detected a decrease in the expression of enzymes involved in ribonucleotide synthesis from the pentose phosphate pathway. During this transition, cells increase in size, downregulate genes associated with proliferation, and strongly upregulate expression of cytoskeletal and extracellular matrix genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study reveals multiple regulatory events associated with metabolic and translational machinery adaptation during an epithelial mesenchymal-like transition process. During this major cellular transition, cells achieve a new homeostatic state ensuring their survival. This work shows that ribosome profiling complemented with RNA-Seq is a powerful approach to unveil in-depth global adaptive cellular responses and the interconnection among regulatory circuits, which will be helpful for identification of new therapeutic targets.

Significance of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition inducing transcription factors in predicting distance metastasis and survival in patients with colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background:

The clinical relevance of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in colorectal cancer (CRC) progression has been highlighted over the last decade. Several EMT-inducing transcription factors (EMT-TFs) have been implicated in the regulation of EMT, including Twist, Snail1, Slug, ZEB1, and ZEB2. Here, this meta-analysis aimed to predict the risk of distance metastasis and overall survival in CRC patients with high expression of EMT-TFs.

Materials and Methods:

All eligible studies were searched in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. The search was carried out to include literatures published as late as September 1, 2018. In overall, 16 studies that investigated the relationship between EMT-TFs with distance metastasis and survival in CRC patients were included. In meta-analysis, a pooled hazard ratio (HR) and odds ratio (OR) were estimated for associations.

Results:

The results of this review indicated that expressions of all EMT-TFs are significantly correlated with poor overall survival in CRC. Moreover, there are a significant association between Twist (OR, 1.46; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.03–2.09), Slug (OR, 3.43; 95% CI, 1.98–5.93), and ZEB2 (OR, 2.42; 95% CI, 1.09–5.40) expression with distance metastatic in CRC patients.

Conclusion:

These findings suggest that the overexpression of EMT-TFs plays a key role in increasing the risk of distance metastasis as well as decreasing overall survival in CRC patients.

Enhancement of Breast Cancer Cell Aggressiveness by lncRNA H19 and its Mir-675 Derivative: Insight into Shared and Different Actions

Breast cancer is a major public health problem and the leading world cause of women death by cancer. Both the recurrence and mortality of breast cancer are mainly caused by the formation of metastasis. The long non-coding RNA H19, the precursor of miR-675, is involved in breast cancer development. The aim of this work was to determine the implication but, also, the relative contribution of H19 and miR-675 to the enhancement of breast cancer metastatic potential. We showed that both H19 and miR-675 increase the invasive capacities of breast cancer cells in xenografted transgenic zebrafish models. In vitro, H19 and miR-675 enhance the cell migration and invasion, as well as colony formation. H19 seems to induce the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), with a decreased expression of epithelial markers and an increased expression of mesenchymal markers. Interestingly, miR-675 simultaneously increases the expression of both epithelial and mesenchymal markers, suggesting the induction of a hybrid phenotype or mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET). Finally, we demonstrated for the first time that miR-675, like its precursor H19, increases the stemness properties of breast cancer cells. Altogether, our data suggest that H19 and miR-675 could enhance the aggressiveness of breast cancer cells through both common and different mechanisms.

Small breast epithelial mucin promotes the invasion and metastasis of breast cancer cells via promoting epithelial‑to‑mesenchymal transition

The aim of the present study was to observe the influence of the small breast epithelial mucin (MUCL1) (also known as SBEM) gene on migration and invasion ability of breast cancer cells and to explore the potentially involved mechanism. SBEM‑interference plasmid and SBEM‑overexpressing plasmid were constructed. SBEM‑knockdown or SBEM‑​overexpressing MCF‑7 and MDA‑MB‑231 breast cancer cells were established by lentivirus‑mediated stable transfection method. The scratch wound‑healing assay and Transwell chamber experiment were used to detect the influence of the SBEM gene on the migration and invasion abilities of MCF‑7 and MDA‑MB‑231 cells. Real‑time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and western blotting were used to detect the expression of epithelial‑to‑mesenchymal transition (EMT)‑related markers and regulators. The cell morphology was observed after transfection. The SBEM‑knockdown or SBEM‑overexpressing MCF‑7 and MDA‑MB‑231 cells were established successfully. The migration and invasion abilities were decreased after SBEM was downregulated, and were increased after SBEM was overexpressed both in MCF‑7 and MDA‑MB‑231 cell lines. The mRNA and protein expressions of N‑cadherin, Twist and vimentin were elevated following SBEM overexpression, while the expression of E‑cadherin and claudin‑1 were found to be decreased following SBEM overexpression. In conclusion, SBEM has the potential to promote migration and invasion ability of breast cancer cells via promoting epithelial‑to‑mesenchymal transition.

BMP-2 Variants in Breast Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition and Microcalcifications Origin

This study aims to investigate the possible different roles of the BMP-2 variants, cytoplasmic and nuclear variant, in both epithelial to mesenchymal transition and in microcalcifications origin in human breast cancers. To this end, the in situ expression of cytoplasmic and nuclear BMP-2 was associated with the expression of the main epithelial to mesenchymal transition biomarkers (e-cadherin and vimentin) and molecules involved in bone metabolisms (RUNX2, RANKL, SDF-1) by immunohistochemistry. In addition, the expression of cytoplasmic and nuclear BMP-2 was associated with the presence of microcalcifications. Our data showed a significant association among the number of cytoplasmic BMP-2-positive cells and the number of both vimentin (positive association) and e-cadherin (negative association) positive breast cells. Conversely, no associations were found concerning the nuclear BMP-2-positive breast cells. Surprisingly, the opposite result was obtained by analyzing the variants of BMP-2 and both the expression of RANKL and SDF-1 and the presence of microcalcifications. Specifically, the presence of microcalcifications was related to the expression of nuclear BMP-2 variant rather than the cytoplasmic one, as well as a strong association between the number of nuclear BMP-2 and the expression of the main breast osteoblast-like cells (BOLCs) biomarkers. To further corroborate these data, an in vitro experiment for demonstrating the co-expression of nBMP-2 and RANKL or vimentin or SDF-1 in breast cancer cells that acquire the capability to produce microcalcifications was developed. These investigations confirmed the association between the nBMP-2 expression and both RANKL and SDF-1. The data supports the idea that whilst cytoplasmic BMP-2 can be involved in epithelial to mesenchymal transition phenomenon, the nuclear variant is related to the essential mechanisms for the formation of breast microcalcifications. In conclusion, from these experimental and translational perspectives, the complexity of BMP-2 signaling will require a detailed understanding of the involvement of specific BMP-2 variants in breast cancers.

Hyaluronic acid induction on breast cancer stem cells unfolds subtype specific variations in stemness and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

The reoccurrence of breast cancer is a major concern due to presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Considering the key role of hyaluronic acid (HA) in modulating the inflammation and cellular migration in cancer, the response of high molecular weight (HMW) and low molecular weight (LMW) HA towards various subtypes of breast cancer and breast cancer stem cells remain elusive. The aim of this study is to determine the effect of exogenous HMW-HA and LMW-HA on stemness of CSCs and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition which may help in designing HA based therapeutic strategies. LMW-HA induces EMT in MCF-7 more prominently as compared to MDA-MB-231. However, HMW-HA did not show significant changes in the expression of EMT genes. Surprisingly, both HMW-HA and LMW-HA have shown to decrease the expression of EpCAM in MCF-7 cells and decrease the expression of CD44 in MDAMB-231 cells. HA has maintained the native stem cells phenotype of bCSCs isolated from MCF-7 only. The bCSCs isolated form MDAMB-231 showed a decrease in CD44. Luminal subtype has shown to follow Wnt/β-catenin whereas in the basal subtype localization of CD44 from surface to cytosol was observed in response to HA. Our study has demonstrated that bCSCs in luminal and basal cells follow differential intracellular signaling mechanisms in response to HA. This study could significantly influence the therapeutics involving HA in breast cancer.

The Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in the Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition Process During the Fibrosis

Fibrosis is considered a complex form of tissue damage commonly present in the end stage of many diseases. It is also related to a high percentage of death, whose predominant characteristics are an excessive and abnormal deposition of fibroblasts and myofibroblasts -derived extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a process in which epithelial cells gradually change to mesenchymal ones, is a major contributor in the pathogenesis of fibrosis. The key mediator of EMT is a multifunctional cytokine called transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) that acts as the main inducer of the ECM assembly and remodeling through the phosphorylation of Smad2/3, which ultimately forms a complex with Smad4 and translocates into the nucleus. On the other hand, the bone morphogenic protein-7 (BMP-7), a member of the TGF family, reverses EMT by directly counteracting TGF-β induced Smad-dependent cell signaling. NLRP3 (NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 3), in turn, acts as cytosolic sensors of microbial and self-derived molecules and forms an immune complex called inflammasome in the context of inflammatory commitments. NLRP3 inflammasome assembly is triggered by extracellular ATP, reactive oxygen species (ROS), potassium efflux, calcium misbalance, and lysosome disruption. Due to its involvement in multiple diseases, NLRP3 has become one of the most studied pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). Nevertheless, the role of NLRP3 in fibrosis development has not been completely elucidated. In this review, we described the relation of the previously mentioned fibrosis pathway with the NLRP3 inflammasome complex formation, especially EMT-related pathways. For now, it is suggested that the EMT happens independently from the oligomerization of the whole inflammasome complex, requiring just the presence of the NLRP3 receptor and the ASC protein to trigger the EMT events, and we will present different pieces of research that give controversial point of views.

Expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related markers and phenotypes during breast cancer progression

Purpose

The study aimed to investigate expression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related proteins and phenotypes during breast cancer progression and to relate this to patient outcome.

Methods

Protein expression patterns of E-cadherin, N-cadherin, twist, and vimentin were examined by immunohistochemistry on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples from primary tumors (PTs) (n = 419), synchronous lymph node metastases (LNMs) (n = 131) and recurrences (n = 34) from patients included in an observational prospective primary breast cancer study. Markers were evaluated individually and combined as defined EMT phenotypes (epithelial, mesenchymal, partial EMT, and negative). EMT profiles were compared between matched tumor progression stages, and related to clinicopathological data and distant recurrence-free interval (DRFi).

Results

N-cadherin-positivity, vimentin-positivity, mesenchymal and partial EMT phenotypes were associated with more aggressive tumor characteristics such as triple-negative subtype. Single EMT markers and phenotype discordance rates between paired tumor samples were observed in the range of 2–35%. Non-epithelial phenotypes were more frequently identified in recurrences compared to PTs, however, no skewness of expression or phenotype was detected between PTs and matched LNMs or between PTs and matched recurrences (Exact McNemar test). Interestingly, patients with a twist positive PT had shorter DRFi, compared to patients with a twist negative PT (hazard ratio (HR) 2.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2–5.1, P = 0.02). Essentially, the same effect was seen in multivariable analysis (HR 2.5, 95% CI 0.97–6.6, P = 0.06).

Conclusion

The epithelial phenotype was indicated to be lost between PTs and recurrences as a reflection of tumor progression. Twist status of the PT was related to long-term prognosis warranting further investigation in larger cohorts.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s10549-020-05627-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Breast cancer metastasis to bone: From epithelial to mesenchymal transition to breast osteoblast-like cells

In this review we highlighted the newest aspects concerning the physiopathology of breast cancer metastatization into the bone including: a) in situ biomarkers of breast cancer metastatic diseases, b) biological processes related to the origin of metastatic cells (epithelial to mesenchymal transition), c) the nature and the possible role of Breast Osteoblast-Like Cells in the formation of bone lesions and d) the prognostic value of breast microcalcifications for the bone metastatic disease. In addition, the more recent data about the biology of breast cancer metastatic process and the origin and function of Breast Osteoblast-Like Cells have been analyzed to propose the use of molecular imaging investigations able to identify early neoplastic lesions with high propensity to form bone metastasis in vivo.