Ginsenoside Rg3 induces DNA damage in human osteosarcoma cells and reduces MNNG-induced DNA damage and apoptosis in normal human cells

Ginsenosides in cancer: Proliferation, metastasis, and drug resistance

Ginseng, the dried root of Panax ginseng C.A. Mey., is widely used in Chinese herbal medicine. Ginsenosides, the primary active components of ginseng, exhibit diverse anticancer functions through various mechanisms, such as inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, promoting apoptosis, and suppressing cell invasion and migration. In this article, the mechanism of action of 20 ginsenoside subtypes in tumor therapy and the research progress of multifunctional nanosystems are reviewed, in order to provide reference for clinical prevention and treatment of cancer.

Rg3-loaded P407/CS/HA hydrogel inhibits UVB-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in HaCaT cells

UVB radiation can damage human skin, whereas Ginsenoside Rg3, the active ingredient in red ginseng that is processed from ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), could inhibit UVB induced cell damage through anti-oxidation. Meanwhile, P407/CS/HA hydrogel has significant biomedical applications as carriers of drugs. However, the beneficial effects of Rg3-loaded hydrogel (Rg3-Gel) on human HaCaT keratinocytes induced by UVB have rarely been reported. In our study, Rg3 was loaded into hydrogel and the effect of Rg3-Gel against UVB‑induced Hacat cells damages was determined by measuring its ability to alleviate UVB‑induced elevation of oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory and apoptotic response. We found that the treatment with Rg3-Gel inhibited the generation of intracellular ROS and MDA and upregulated the expression of antioxidant enzymes SOD and GSH-Px which were inhibited by UVB exposure. Increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF‑α, COX‑2, iNOS and IL‑1β following UVB irradiation were suppressed by the introduction of Rg3-Gel. Additionally, the level of Bcl-2 was decreased and the expression of Bax and Caspase3 were enhanced by Rg3-Gel treatment. In conclusion, Rg3-Gel equipped with the synergistic effect of Rg3 and hydrogel has an effective inhibitory effect on UVB-induced oxidative stress, inflammatory and apoptosis.

Efficacy of ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles against Ehrlich solid tumor growth in mice

Solid tumors are fairly common and face many clinical difficulties since they are hardly surgically resectable and broadly do not respond to radiation and chemotherapy. The current study aimed to fabricate ginsenoside Rg3 nanoparticles (Rg3-NPs) and evaluate their antitumor effect against Ehrlich solid tumors (EST) in mice. Rg3-NPs were fabricated using whey protein isolates (WPI), maltodextrin (MD), and gum Arabic (GA). EST was developed by the injection of mice with Ehrlich ascites cells (2.5 × 10⁶). The mice were divided into a control group, EST group, and the EST groups that were treated orally 2 weeks for with normal Rg3 (3 mg/kg b.w.), Rg3-NPs at a low dose (3 mg/kg b.w.), and Rg3-NPs at a high dose (6 mg/kg b.w.). Serum and solid tumors were collected for different assays. The results revealed that synthesized Rg3-NPs showed a spherical shape with an average particle size of 20 nm and zeta potential of -5.58 mV. The in vivo study revealed that EST mice showed a significant increase in AFP, Casp3, TNF-α, MMP-9, VEGF, MDA, and DNA damage accompanied by a significant decrease in SOD and GPx. Treatment with Rg3 or Rg3-NPs decreased the tumor weight and size and induced a significant improvement in all the biochemical parameters. Rg3-NPs were more effective than Rg3, and the improvement was dose-dependent. It could be concluded that fabrication of Rg3-NPs enhanced the protective effect against EST development which may be due to the synergistic effect of Rg3 and MD, GA, and WPI.

Traditional Herbal Medicine: A Potential Therapeutic Approach for Adjuvant Treatment of Non-small Cell Lung Cancer in the Future

Lung carcinoma is the primary reason for cancer-associated mortality, and it exhibits the highest mortality and incidence in developed and developing countries. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and SCLC are the 2 main types of lung cancer, with NSCLC contributing to 85% of all lung carcinoma cases. Conventional treatment mainly involves surgery, chemoradiotherapy, and immunotherapy, but has a dismal prognosis for many patients. Therefore, identifying an effective adjuvant therapy is urgent. Historically, traditional herbal medicine has been an essential part of complementary and alternative medicine, due to its numerous targets, few side effects and substantial therapeutic benefits. In China and other East Asian countries, traditional herbal medicine is increasingly popular, and is highly accepted by patients as a clinical adjuvant therapy. Numerous studies have reported that herbal extracts and prescription medications are effective at combating tumors. It emphasizes that, by mainly regulating the P13K/AKT signaling pathway, the Wnt signaling pathway, and the NF-κB signaling pathway, herbal medicine induces apoptosis and inhibits the proliferation and migration of tumor cells. The present review discusses the anti-NSCLC mechanisms of herbal medicines and provides options for future adjuvant therapy in patients with NSCLC.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits osteosarcoma progression by reducing circ_0003074 expression in a miR-516b-5p/KPNA4-dependent manner

Background

Previous data have suggested that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), isolated from the roots of Panax ginseng, plays a repressing role in multiple cancers, including osteosarcoma (OS). However, there is no any literature available about the role of circular RNA (circRNA) in Rg3-mediated OS development. The study aimed to explore the function of circ_0003074 in the anti-cancer effects of Rg3 on OS.

Methods

RNA expression of circ_0003074, miR-516b-5p and karyopherin subunit alpha 4 (KPNA4) was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Protein expression was evaluated by Western blotting or immunohistochemistry assay. Cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion were investigated by cell counting kit-8, 5-ethynyl-29-deoxyuridine (EdU), flow cytometry analysis, wound-healing and transwell invasion assays, respectively. Dual-luciferase reporter and/or RNA immunoprecipitation assay was performed to confirm the interplay between miR-516b-5p and circ_0003074 or KPNA4. Xenograft mouse model assay was conducted to reveal the effect of Rg3 treatment on tumor formation.

Results

Circ_0003074 and KPNA4 expression was significantly upregulated, while miR-516b-5p was downregulated in OS tissues and cells compared with controls. Rg3 treatment dramatically decreased circ_0003074 expression in OS cells. Rg3 treatment led to decreased cell proliferation, migration and invasion but increased cell apoptosis, which was attenuated after circ_0003074 overexpression. Besides, miR-516b-5p was a target miRNA of circ_0003074 and partially restored circ_0003074-mediated action under Rg3 treatment. Decreasing miR-516b-5p expression also promoted Rg3-treated OS cell malignancy through KPNA4, which was identified as a target mRNA of miR-516b-5p. Besides, circ_0003074 induced KPNA4 production owing to the decrease of miR-516b-5p expression. Furthermore, Rg3 treatment inhibited tumor formation by regulating circ_0003074 in vivo.

Conclusion

Rg3 inhibited OS progression through circ_0003074/miR-516b-5p/KPNA4 axis, showing the potential of Rg3 as a therapeutic agent for OS.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13018-021-02868-7.

Circ_0003074 expression was upregulated in OS tissues and cells.

Rg3 treatment significantly decreased circ_0003074 expression in OS cells.

Circ_0003074 overexpression rescued Rg3-induced inhibition in OS progression.

Circ_0003074 induced KPNA4 production through miR-516b-5p under Rg3 treatment.

Graphene Oxide Nanoparticle-Loaded Ginsenoside Rg3 Improves Photodynamic Therapy in Inhibiting Malignant Progression and Stemness of Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma serves as a prevalent bone cancer with a high metastasis and common drug resistance, resulting in poor prognosis and high mortality. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a patient-specific and non-invasive tumor therapy. Nanoparticles, like graphene oxide have been widely used in drug delivery and PDT. Ginsenoside Rg3 is a principal ginseng component and has presented significant anti-cancer activities. Here, we constructed the nanoparticles using GO linked with photosensitizer (PS) indocyanine green (ICG), folic acid, and polyethylene glycol (PEG), and loaded with Rg3 (PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3). We aimed to explore the effect of PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3 combined with PDT for the treatment of osteosarcoma. Significantly, we found that Rg3 repressed proliferation, invasion, and migration, and enhanced apoptosis and autophagy of osteosarcoma cells, while the PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3 presented a higher activity, in which NIR laser co-treatment could remarkably increase the effect of PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3. Meanwhile, stemness of osteosarcoma cell–derived cancer stem cells was inhibited by Rg3 and PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3, and the combination of PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3 with NIR laser further significantly attenuated this phenotype in the system. Moreover, NIR laser notably improved the inhibitor effect of PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3 on the tumor growth of osteosarcoma cells in vivo. Consequently, we concluded that PEG–GO–FA/ICG–Rg3 improved PDT in inhibiting malignant progression and stemness of osteosarcoma cell. Our finding provides a promising and practical therapeutic strategy for the combined treatment of osteosarcoma.

Insights into the antitumor mechanism of ginsenosides Rg3

Panax ginseng, an ancient herb, belonging to Chinese traditional medicine, is an important herb that has a remarkable impact on various diseases. Ginsenoside Rg3, one of the most abundant ginsenosides, exerts significant functions in the prevention of various types of cancers with few side effects. In the present review, its functional molecular mechanisms are explored, including the improvement of antioxidant and anti-inflammation properties, immune regulation, induction of tumor apoptosis, prevention of tumor invasion and metastasis, tumor proliferation and angiogenesis, and reduction of chemoresistance and radioresistance. On the other hand, metabolism, pharmacokinetics and clinical indications of Rg3 are also discussed. The biological functional role of ginsenoside Rg3 may be associated with that it is a steroid glycoside with diverse biological activities and many signaling pathway can be regulated. Many clinical trials are highly needed to confirm the functions of ginsenoside Rg3.

Ginsenoside Rh2 impedes proliferation and migration and induces apoptosis by regulating NF-κB, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways in osteosarcoma cells

Ginsenoside Rh2 is a primary bioactive compound obtained from ginseng that indicated anticancer activities against several malignant tumors. However, previous studies have reported little about the inhibitory effect of Rh2 on osteosarcoma (OS). This study aims to explore whether Rh2 could exert anticancer effects in OS cells and further investigate the proliferation, migration, and apoptosis mechanisms induced by Rh2 in human OS U20S cell line. The viability of U20S cells was obtained by the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide assay. Cell migration property was analyzed by wound-healing assay. Apoptosis was visualized using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL), 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI), and annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) staining. Relative protein expressed was confirmed through Western blot analysis. Mitochondrial membrane potential was evaluated by JC-1 staining. In this study, we used broad-spectrum anticancer drug cisplatin (CP) as a positive control. The results indicated that Rh2 remarkably inhibited cell viability of U20S cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and suppressed migration. TUNEL, DAPI, annexin V/PI, and JC-1 assay suggested that Rh2 could induce cellular apoptosis. Rh2 could reduce the levels of Bcl-2, caspase 3, and caspase 9, and promote the expression level of Bax in U20S cells. Moreover, Rh2 could induce apoptosis by promoting mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and inhibit PI3K/Akt/mTOR and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in U20S cells. These findings indicated that Rh2 has an anticancer effect on U20S cells by regulating MAPK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, and NF-κB signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Inhibits the Growth of Osteosarcoma and Attenuates Metastasis through the Wnt/β-Catenin and EMT Signaling Pathway

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary malignant bone cancer. An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), which is extracted from the roots of the traditional Chinese herb Panax ginseng, plays a tumor suppression role in various malignant tumors. In the present study, we aimed at investigating the role of Rg3 in the proliferation, migration, and invasion of OS and at exploring the underlying mechanisms. Cell viability and proliferation were observed by MTT assay and crystal violet staining. The migration and invasion of cells were measured by wound-healing assay and Transwell method. Signaling pathway screening was investigated using luciferase reporter gene assay. qRT-PCR and western blot were performed to measure the expression of molecules involved in cell epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Results suggested that Rg3 could not only inhibit proliferation but also hamper the migration and invasion of OS. qRT-PCR and western blot demonstrated that a reduced level of MMP2/MMP7/MMP9 was induced after Rg3 treatment. In addition, the expression levels of proteins related to EMT and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway were downregulated. In summary, our data revealed that Rg3 could inhibit the proliferation, migration, and invasion of OS cells. This effect of Rg3 might be mediated by downregulating MMP2, MMP7, and MMP9 expression and suppressing EMT as well as the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Thus, Rg3 might be a potential agent for the treatment of OS.

Anticancer activities of phytoconstituents and their liposomal targeting strategies against tumor cells and the microenvironment

Various bioactive ingredients have been extracted from Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) that affect tumor progression and metastasis. To further understand the mechanisms of CHMs in cancer therapy, this article summarizes the effects of five categories of CHMs and their active ingredients on tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. Despite their treatment potential, the undesirable physicochemical properties (poor permeability, instability, high hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, toxicity) and unwanted pharmacokinetic profiles (short half-life in blood and low bioavailability) restrict clinical studies of CHMs. Therefore, development of liposomes through relevant surface modifying techniques to achieve targeted CHM delivery for cancer cells, i.e., extracellular and intracellular targets and targets in tumor microenvironment or vasculature, have been reviewed. Current challenges of liposomal targeting of these phytoconstituents and future perspective of CHM applications are discussed to provide an informative reference for interested readers.

Panax quinquefolium L. Ginsenosides from Hairy Root Cultures and Their Clones Exert Cytotoxic, Genotoxic and Pro-Apoptotic Activity towards Human Colon Adenocarcinoma Cell Line Caco-2

American ginseng, Panax quinquefolium (L.), is traditionally used in folk medicine. It exhibits a range of anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-carcinogenic effects. Its main components are ginsenosides, also known as panaxosides or triterpene saponins. In order to obtain high yields of ginsenosides, different methods of controlled production are involved, i.e., with hairy root cultures. However, they are still employed under in vitro conditions. Our studies revealed that hairy root cultures subjected to an elicitation process can be considered as a potent source of ginsenosides. The present study examines the biological activity of ginseng hairy root cultures against the Caco-2 human adenocarcinoma cell line. Among our six different clones of P. quinquefolium hairy roots, extracts B and Be (treated with elicitor) were the strongest inhibitors of the cellular metabolic activity. While all extracts induced DNA damage, B and Be also generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a concentration-dependent manner, which was correlated with the depletion of the mitochondrial membrane potential and induction of apoptosis. These findings indicate that further research concerning P. quinquefolium hairy root cultures should focus on the activity of rare ginsenosides and other biologically active compound profiles (i.e., phenolic compounds).

Ginsenoside Rg3 regulates DNA damage in non-small cell lung cancer cells by activating VRK1/P53BP1 pathway

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Ginsenoside Rg3 is the main ingredient of Ginseng which is used to treat non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). It has been found to enhance the efficiency of chemotherapy thereby reducing its side effects. Previous studies found that ginsenoside Rg3 can reduce the occurrence of NSCLC by inducing DNA damage. Yet, its anti-DNA damaging effects and mechanisms in tumor cells are still not fully understood. This study explored the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on DNA repair and VRK1/P53BP1 signaling pathway. Ginsenoside Rg3 treatment significantly decreased the incidence and invasionin a mouse model of lung cancer induced by urethane. The results of cell survival assay and single cell gel electrophoresis showed that ginsenoside Rg3 protected lung adenocarcinoma cells from DNA damage as well as inhibited the proliferation of tumor cells. Ginsenoside Rg3 increased the mRNA and protein expression of VRK1 in NSCLC cells as measured by RT-qPCR and western blot, respectively. These findings suggests that ginsenoside Rg3 regulates VRK1 signaling. Immunofluorescence assays showed that P53BP1 and VRK1 protein level increased, and the VRK1 protein translocated between the nuclei and cytoplasm. Finally, this conclusion was confirmed by the reverse validation in VRK1-knockdown cells. Taken together, these results show that ginsenoside Rg3 upregulate VRK1 expression and P53BP1 foci formation in response to DNA damage thereby inhibiting the tumorigenesis and viability of cancer cells. These findings reveal the role of Rg3 in lung cancer and provides therapeutic targets for developing new drugs in the prevention and treatment of lung cancer.

Black Ginseng and Its Saponins: Preparation, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Effects

Black ginseng is a type of processed ginseng that is prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming and drying several times. This process causes extensive changes in types and amounts of secondary metabolites. The chief secondary metabolites in ginseng are ginsenosides (dammarane-type triterpene saponins), which transform into less polar ginsenosides in black ginseng by steaming. In addition, apparent changes happen to other secondary metabolites such as the increase in the contents of phenolic compounds, reducing sugars and acidic polysaccharides in addition to the decrease in concentrations of free amino acids and total polysaccharides. Furthermore, the presence of some Maillard reaction products like maltol was also engaged. These obvious chemical changes were associated with a noticeable superiority for black ginseng over white and red ginseng in most of the comparative biological studies. This review article is an attempt to illustrate different methods of preparation of black ginseng, major chemical changes of saponins and other constituents after steaming as well as the reported biological activities of black ginseng, its major saponins and other metabolites.

Ginsenoside impedes proliferation and induces apoptosis of human osteosarcoma cells by down-regulating β-catenin

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most commonly occurred primary bone malignancy with high incident rates among children and adolescents. In pharmacologic treatment, the drug ginsenoside has been shown to exert anticancer effects on several malignant diseases. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of ginsenoside on the apoptosis and proliferation of human OS MG-63 and Saos-2 cells by regulating the expression of β-catenin.

METHODS

Human OS MG-63 and Saos-2 cells were assigned into control group, and four groups with treatment by varying concentrations (12.5 μg/mL, 25 μg/mL, 50 μg/mL and 100 μg/mL) of ginsenoside, respectively. Cell growth after treatment was observed through cell slides. The proliferation rate of MG-63 and Saos-2 cells in each group was detected by CCK-8. After cell transfection at 48 h, cell cycle and cell apoptosis were detected by FITC-Annexin V staining and flow cytometry. The protein and mRNA expressions of β-catenin, Cyclin D1, Bcl-2, Bax and cleaved caspase-3 were detected by RT-qPCR and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

With increased exposure and concentration of ginsenoside, the cell density, total cell numbers and the absorbance of MG-63 and Saos-2 cells gradually decreased. FITC-Annexin V and FITC-Annexin V/PI staining demonstrated that the cell proportion at S phase decreased, whereas the total apoptotic rate of MG-63 and Saos-2 cells was increased. Furthermore, RT-qPCR and western blot analysis highlighted a gradual decrease in protein and mRNA expressions of β-catenin, Bcl-2 and Cyclin D1, while an elevation in those of Bax and cleaved caspase-3.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study demonstrate that ginsenoside inhibits proliferation and promotes apoptosis of human OS MG-63 and Saos-2 cells by reducing the expressions of β-catenin, Bcl-2 and Cyclin D1 and increasing the expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3.

Ginsenoside Rg3: Potential Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Indication in Metastatic Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is still one of the most prevalent cancers and a leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The key challenge with cancer treatment is the choice of the best therapeutic agents with the least possible toxicities on the patient. Recently, attention has been drawn to herbal compounds, in particular ginsenosides, extracted from the root of the Ginseng plant. In various studies, significant anti-cancer properties of ginsenosides have been reported in different cancers. The mode of action of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) in in vitro and in vivo breast cancer models and its value as an anti-cancer treatment for breast cancer will be reviewed.

Role of miR-223-3p in pulmonary arterial hypertension via targeting ITGB3 in the ECM pathway

Objectives

To investigate the functions of miR‐223‐3p and ITGB3 in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).

Materials and Methods

Microarray analysis was used to detect differentially expressed genes and microRNAs. In in vitro models, the expressions of miR‐223‐3p and ITGB3 were detected by qRT‐PCR and Western blot. α‐SMA expression and cell proliferation were analysed by immunofluorescence and MTT assay, respectively. In in vivo models, PAH progressions were determined by measuring the levels of mPAP and RVSP. Lung and myocardial tissues were subjected to HE staining and Masson and Sirius red‐saturated carbazotic acid staining to investigate the pathological features.

Results

The microarray analysis revealed that ITGB3 was upregulated, while hsa‐miR‐223‐3p was downregulated in PAH. After the induction of hypoxia, miR‐223‐3p was downregulated and ITGB3 was upregulated in PASMCs. Hypoxia induction promoted cell proliferation and inhibited α‐SMA expression in PASMCs. Both the upregulation of miR‐223‐3p and the downregulation of ITGB3 attenuated the aberrant proliferation induced by hypoxia conditions. After approximately 4 weeks, the mPAP and RVSP levels of rats injected with MCT were decreased by the overexpression of miR‐223‐3p or the silencing of ITGB3. The staining results revealed that both miR‐223‐3p overexpression and ITGB3 knockdown alleviated the pulmonary vascular remodelling and improved the PAH pathological features of rats.

Conclusions

MiR‐223‐3p alleviated the progression of PAH by suppressing the expression of ITGB3, a finding which provides novel targets for clinical treatment.

Mediation of antiinflammatory effects of Rg3-enriched red ginseng extract from Korean Red Ginseng via retinoid X receptor α-peroxisome-proliferating receptor γ nuclear receptors

Background

Ginseng has a wide range of beneficial effects on health, such as the mitigation of minor and major inflammatory diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. There are abundant data regarding the health-enhancing properties of whole ginseng extracts and single ginsenosides; however, no study to date has determined the receptors that mediate the effects of ginseng extracts. In this study, for the first time, we explored whether the antiinflammatory effects of Rg3-enriched red ginseng extract (Rg3-RGE) are mediated by retinoid X receptor α–peroxisome-proliferating receptor γ (RXRα-PPARγ) heterodimer nuclear receptors.

Methods

Nitric oxide assay, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide assay, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, nuclear hormone receptor–binding assay, and molecular docking analyses were used for this study.

Results

Rg3-RGE exerted antiinflammatory effects via nuclear receptor heterodimers between RXRα and PPARγ agonists and antagonists.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that Rg3-RGE can be considered a potent antiinflammatory agent, and these effects are likely mediated by the nuclear receptor RXRα-PPARγ heterodimer.

Ginsenoside Rg3 induces ginsenoside Rb1-comparable cardioprotective effects independent of reducing blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) is a rare type of ginsenoside used as an anti-tumor medicine in China. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), which exhibits protective effects on the cardiovascular system, is similar to Rg3 in chemical structure. In the present study, Rb1 and Rg3 were administered for 6 weeks to spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and their cardioprotective effects were assessed. According to echocardiography and histopathological examinations, the decrease in cardiac function and ventricular remodeling that occurred in SHR rats were attenuated by Rb1 and Rg3. However, tail-cuff blood pressure measurements indicated that Rb1 and Rg3 did not reduce blood pressure in SHR rats. The cardioprotective effects of Rb1 and Rg3 occurred independently of blood pressure reduction. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry (IHC) revealed that renin angiotensin system (RAS) activity in the myocardium of SHR was significantly attenuated by Rb1 and Rg3, whereas ELISA identified no significant changes of RAS activity in the serum. The results of IHC and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction demonstrated that levels of transforming growth factor β1, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, interleukin-1 and endothelian-1 in the myocardium of SHR rats were reduced following Rb1 and Rg3 treatment. This may be due to the attenuation of RAS activity in the myocardium and the mechanisms of the cardioprotective effects of Rb1 and Rg3.

Korean Red Ginseng extract and ginsenoside Rg3 have anti-pruritic effects on chloroquine-induced itch by inhibition of MrgprA3/TRPA1-mediated pathway

Background

It was previously found that Korean Red Ginseng water extract (KRGE) inhibits the histamine-induced itch signaling pathway in peripheral sensory neurons. Thus, in the present study, we investigated whether KRGE inhibited another distinctive itch pathway induced by chloroquine (CQ); a representative histamine-independent pathway mediated by MrgprA3 and TRPA1.

Methods

Intracellular calcium changes were measured by the calcium imaging technique in the HEK293T cells transfected with both MrgprA3 and TRPA1 ("MrgprA3/TRPA1"), and in primary culture of mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRGs). Mouse scratching behavior tests were performed to verify proposed antipruritic effects of KRGE and ginsenoside Rg3.

Results

CQ-induced Ca²⁺ influx was strongly inhibited by KRGE (10 μg/mL) in MrgprA3/TRPA1, and notably ginsenoside Rg3 dose-dependently suppressed CQ-induced Ca²⁺ influx in MrgprA3/TRPA1. Moreover, both KRGE (10 μg/mL) and Rg3 (100 μM) suppressed CQ-induced Ca²⁺ influx in primary culture of mouse DRGs, indicating that the inhibitory effect of KRGE was functional in peripheral sensory neurons. In vivo tests revealed that not only KRGE (100 mg) suppressed CQ-induced scratching in mice [bouts of scratching: 274.0 ± 51.47 (control) vs. 104.7 ± 17.39 (KRGE)], but also Rg3 (1.5 mg) oral administration significantly reduced CQ-induced scratching as well [bouts of scratching: 216.8 ± 33.73 (control) vs. 115.7 ± 20.94 (Rg3)].

Conclusion

The present study verified that KRGE and Rg3 have a strong antipruritic effect against CQ-induced itch. Thus, KRGE is as a promising antipruritic agent that blocks both histamine-dependent and -independent itch at peripheral sensory neuronal levels.

Anticancer effects of ginsenoside Rg3 (Review)

Cancer is a life-threatening disease with an alarmingly increased annual mortality rate globally. Although various therapies are employed for cancer, the final effect is not satisfactory. Chemotherapy is currently the most commonly used treatment option. However, the unsatisfactory efficacy, severe side-effects and drug resistance hinder the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. There is increasing evidence indicating that ginsenoside Rg3, a naturally occurring phytochemical, plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of cancer. The suggested mechanisms mainly include the induction of apoptosis, and the inhibition of proliferation, metastasis and angiogenesis, as well as the promotion of immunity. In addition, ginsenoside Rg3 can be used as an adjuvant to conventional cancer therapies, improving the efficacy and/or reducing adverse effects via synergistic activities. Ginsenoside Rg3 may be a widely applied natural medicine against cancer. To date however, there is no systematic summary available of the anticancer effects of ginsenoside Rg3. Therefore, in this review, all available literature over the past 10 years was reviewed and discussed in order to facilitate further research of ginsenoside Rg3.

Anticancer Activities of Protopanaxadiol- and Protopanaxatriol-Type Ginsenosides and Their Metabolites

Recently, most anticancer drugs are derived from natural resources such as marine, microbial, and botanical sources, but the low success rates of chemotherapies and the development of multidrug resistance emphasize the importance of discovering new compounds that are both safe and effective against cancer. Ginseng types, including Asian ginseng, American ginseng, and notoginseng, have been used traditionally to treat various diseases, due to their immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, antioxidative, and antitumor activities. Accumulating reports have shown that ginsenosides, the major active component of ginseng, were helpful for tumor treatment. 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PDS) and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol saponins (PTS) are two characteristic types of triterpenoid saponins in ginsenosides. PTS holds capacity to interfere with crucial metabolism, while PDS could affect cell cycle distribution and prodeath signaling. This review aims at providing an overview of PTS and PDS, as well as their metabolites, regarding their different anticancer effects with the proposal that these compounds might be potent additions to the current chemotherapeutic strategy against cancer.

Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits colon cancer cell migration by suppressing nuclear factor kappa B activity

OBJECTIVE

To study the mechanism of the inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on colon cancer cell migration.

METHODS

Transwell migration assays were performed to investigate the inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on SW480 cell migration. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) and dual luciferase reporter assays were used to study the suppression capability of Rg3 on nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activity. Western blotting was adopted to determine protein levels.

RESULTS

Two-hundred micromolar ginsenoside Rg3 significantly inhibited SW480 cell migration (P < 0.05). EMSA showed that Rg3 suppressed the DNA binding ability of NF-κB. Dual luciferase reporter assay showed that Rg3 decreased NF-κB-regulated gene transcription (P < 0.01). Western blots indicated that Rg3 down-regulated expression of the NF-κB-regulated matrix metalloproteinase 9, cyclooxygenase-2 and C-Myc. An NF-κB inhibitor, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, enhanced the inhibitory effect of Rg3 on SW480 cell migration.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rg3 has a strong antitumor migration capability by suppressing NF-κB activity and expression of NF-κB-regulated gene products. It could be a good adjuvant for colon cancer patients during the course of chemotherapy.

Elephantopus scaber induces apoptosis through ROS-dependent mitochondrial signaling pathway in HCT116 human colorectal carcinoma cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Elephantopus scaber also known as Elephant's foot (Asteraceae family) has a plethora of traditional applications including dysuria, diarrhea, dysentery, leukemia and cancer. This study aimed to investigate the apoptosis inducing effects of E. scaber and the underlying mechanisms in HCT116 colorectal cell line.

METHODS

The MTT assay was used to determine the IC50 values on cancer cell lines by the ethanol, hexane, ethyl acetate and water fractions. Apoptosis was detected by cell morphologic observation through Hoechst 33342/PI dual staining, phosphatidylserine externalization by Annexin V/PI staining and DNA fragmentation by TUNEL assay. The caspase activity, Bcl-2 family and p53 proteins were determined by flow cytometric analysis. The cleaved PARP protein expression was assessed by western blot analysis

RESULTS

The ethanol extract of E. scaber and its fractions significantly inhibited the growth of HCT116 and HT-29 cells and induced apoptosis. The E. scaber ethyl acetate fraction (ESEAF) was the most potent on HCT116 cell line with the IC50 value of 1.42 ± 0.10 µg/mL. The induction of apoptosis was marked by nuclear shrinkage accompanied with chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation and phosphatidylserine externalization. The results showed that ESEAF-induced apoptosis was associated with an upregulation of proapoptotic Bax, elevation of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of caspase-3 and cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). In addition, a compromised mitochondrial membrane potential and overproduction of ROS demonstrated the involvement of the mitochondrial signaling pathway. Mechanistic studies further revealed that ESEAF caused the augmentation of the intracellular ROS, subsequently incited the increase in p53 protein expression and led to oligomerization of Bax, depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential and caspases cascade (caspase-3/7 and -9) in a time-dependent manner. The attenuation of intracellular ROS level by N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) preserved the integrity of mitochondrial membrane and rescued the cells from cell death. Furthermore, caspase cascade results in the cleavage of PARP which ultimately activated DNA fragmentation and eventually apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, cumulative evidences in this study suggest that ESEAF induces apoptosis through ROS-dependent mitochondrial signaling pathway and holds potential therapeutic effect for colorectal cancer.

Ginsenoside‑Rg5 induces apoptosis and DNA damage in human cervical cancer cells

Panax ginseng is traditionally used as a remedy for cancer, inflammation, stress and aging, and ginsenoside‑Rg5 is a major bioactive constituent of steamed ginseng. The present study aimed to evaluate whether ginsenoside‑Rg5 had any marked cytotoxic, apoptotic or DNA‑damaging effects in human cervical cancer cells. Five human cervical cancer cell lines (HeLa, MS751, C33A, Me180 and HT‑3) were used to investigate the cytotoxicity of ginsenoside‑Rg5 using a 3‑(4,5‑dimethylthiazol‑2‑yl)‑2,5‑diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Additionally, the effects of ginsenoside‑Rg5 on the apoptosis of HeLa and MS751 cells were detected using DNA ladder assays and flow cytometry. DNA damage was assessed in the HeLa and MS751 cells using alkaline comet assays and by detection of γH2AX focus formation. The HeLa and MS751 cells were significantly more sensitive to ginsenoside‑Rg5 treatment compared with the C‑33A, HT‑3 and Me180 cells. As expected, ginsenoside‑Rg5 induced significant concentration‑ and time‑dependent increases in apoptosis. In addition, ginsenoside‑Rg5 induced significant concentration‑dependent increases in the level of DNA damage compared with the negative control. Consistent with the comet assay data, the percentage of γH2AX‑positive HeLa and MS751 cells also revealed that ginsenoside‑Rg5 caused DNA double‑strands to break in a concentration‑dependent manner. In conclusion, ginsenoside‑Rg5 had marked genotoxic effects in the HeLa and MS751 cells and, thus, demonstrates potential as a genotoxic or cytotoxic drug for the treatment of cervical cancer.