The Physiological Requirements of and Nutritional Recommendations for Equestrian Riders

Equestrian sport is under-researched within the sport science literature, creating a possible knowledge vacuum for athletes and support personnel wishing to train and perform in an evidence-based manner. This review aims to synthesise available evidence from equitation, sport, and veterinary sciences to describe the pertinent rider physiology of equestrian disciplines. Estimates of energy expenditure and the contribution of underpinning energy systems to equestrian performance are used to provide nutrition and hydration recommendations for competition and training in equestrian disciplines. Relative energy deficiency and disordered eating are also considered. The practical challenges of the equestrian environment, including competitive, personal, and professional factors, injury and concussion, and female participation, are discussed to better highlight novelty within equestrian disciplines compared to more commonly studied sports. The evidence and recommendations are supported by example scenarios, and future research directions are outlined.

The psychological responses of British amateur point-to-point jockeys to personal injury

Previous research has reported significant psychological consequences of injury on rehabilitation success, performance, and wellbeing in athletes, although little is known within horse-based sports. There is a high prevalence of injury reported in point-to-point (P2P) jockeys, but despite this, comparatively little research exists examining the psychological implications resulting from physical trauma within horseracing. The aim of this study was to investigate the psychological responses to personal injury in British amateur P2P jockeys. Five amateur P2P jockeys (two male, three female, x- age 25 years old) were interviewed about their experiences post an injury sustained during racing in the preceding 12 months. Interview questions explored their pre-injury career, the rehabilitation phase, pre-return to racing phase issues and coping strategies used by jockeys. Thematic analysis revealed three higher order themes: emotional responses, coping strategies, and factors affecting recovery. Subjects universally cited negative emotional responses following injury, including grief, a sense of loss, and frustration, and all experienced denial at the onset of injury. Typical coping strategies included strong support networks of family, friends and racing staff, and goal setting. Fear of reinjury was identified by all athletes, particularly on return to the saddle, and the attitudes towards injury management, such as denial, seen in this study may provide opportunities to develop targeted education campaigns for P2P jockeys on injury services. Targeted marketing for P2P jockeys on available injury support is recommended, such as seen for professional jockeys, as well as the creation of career development resources to offer alternative routes for P2P jockeys following injury.

Within and Between-Tournament Variability in Equestrian Polo

The external work, as measured by global positioning systems, undertaken by Polo ponies during tournament play has been well-described across Polo of varying levels in both Open and Women's Polo. However, the variability within these data have not been thoroughly examined. Understanding the variability within these data between players (within-tournament variability) and between tournaments allows a deeper understanding of expected Polo performance and can inform coaching and tactical decisions, as well as aid in longitudinal horse development and comparison to other equestrian disciplines. The present paper captured data from 618 chukkas of Polo, in levels ranging from 0- to 16-goal and Women's Polo, across three New Zealand Polo seasons. Standard error and coefficient of variation were calculated to assess within-tournament variability; between-tournament variability was assessed via median percentage difference and Spearman's rho correlation coefficients. Playing duration, speeds (average and maximum) and distance metrics (total and standardized speed zones) typically increase with level of Polo play, with a concomitant reduction in within-tournament variability also seen. Nought (0-), 6-goal and Women's Polo show comparable within-tournament measures and associated variability. Polo, shows a high degree of between-tournament variability as within-player variability often exceeds that of between-player variability, affecting mathematical interpretations of reliability. Z-scores are a convenient alternative method for capturing and displaying between-tournament variability for the examined parameters, facilitating comparing across tournaments and seasons. Exemplar boundaries for this approach in Polo are provided.

Is Injury an Occupational Hazard for Horseracing Staff?

Occupational health is a key priority for the horseracing industry, yet little research on occupational injuries exists. This study investigated the prevalence and the effect of injury in British horseracing staff during a 12-month period. An online retrospective survey was answered by 352 participants, identifying self-reported injury prevalence, injury management practices and attitudes towards workplace injury reporting. Chi Squared tests for independence were undertaken. A total of 310 (88.1%) staff reported injuries; risk factors for injury type included self-perceived job security, working hours, and perceived job control. Physical limitations, loss of confidence, workplace changes, and lifestyle implications were reported as consequences of injury. A total of 75.3% (n = 134) of staff were likely to seek time-off following fractures, but only 48.6% (n = 86) would take time-off for concussion. Attitudes towards injury management were influenced by financial circumstances, perceived staff shortages, previous injury experiences, and perceived employer expectations. The high self-reported injury prevalence could result in decreased workforce efficiency, poor physical health, and negative implications on retention and career longevity. The perception of invisible injuries, i.e., concussion, and subsequent management, should be of immediate concern to racing organizations. This paper identifies recommendations to enhance the safety and wellbeing of horseracing staff.

Racing to a staffing solution: an investigation into the current staffing crisis within the UK horseracing industry

The British Horseracing Industry has been experiencing a labour shortage since the 1970’s and despite recent improvements reported in staff retainment, the industry still reports high staff turnover. We investigated staffing challenges experienced by UK horseracing employers and employees, to formulate strategic targets to address any issues identified. Thirty UK trainers and staff (12 staff, 9 senior staff, 9 trainers) participated in semi-structured inductive focus groups lasting on average 39±9 min. Questions explored staff background in racing, perceptions of the current staff challenges, retention and recommendations for improvement. Thematic analysis revealed four higher order themes; (1) lack of skills, (2) differences in perceived work ethic, (3) job conditions, and (4) media portrayal. This study concluded that there are dedicated staff working in the industry, but significant skills gaps, high workloads, poor work-life balance and a lack of training and career progression negatively influence retention in the horseracing industry.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Staff Working Practices in UK Horseracing

Simple Summary

Although coronavirus stopped horseracing in March 2020, most staff were classified as essential workers due to equine care and continued to work throughout lockdown. The physical and psychological impact of working during lockdown is unknown, and staff stress could have negative implications for racehorse welfare. Over half of staff surveyed were still working during lockdown. Racing grooms and stud staff were more likely to be working than most sectors, due to the timing of lockdown with the racing calendar and foaling season. Administrative staff were busier during lockdown, completing additional risk assessments or paperwork. Most staff reported that workplace changes were successful in protecting health and safety, but flat racing grooms felt that work-based changes were less effective. Negative perceptions of work-based COVID-19 changes may affect the staff’s ability to complete daily tasks and thus influence the quality of care provided to horses in their charge. Trainers and part-time staff were concerned about job security, highlighting a need for further employee support structures following the pandemic. The racing industry has prioritised staff health and safety but continued reflection on staff well-being, demands and working practices will maximise staff’s ability to care for horses under their charge, and allow racing to maintain the highest standards of equine welfare.

Abstract

Due to COVID-19, horseracing was required to cease all activity in March 2020; however, little is known about the pandemic’s impact on staff working practices. This study investigated the impact of COVID-19 on staff working practices during the initial lockdown phases. An online survey about working conditions during lockdown was answered by 287 participants. Chi-squared tests for independence and binary logistic regression (BLR) analysis was undertaken. A total of 53.7% (n = 154) of staff were working during lockdown. Pandemic-specific workplace changes were reported as effective by 87.8% (n = 115) of staff. Flat grooms reported workplace changes as less effective (χ² (52, n = 131) = 92.996, p < 0.001). A total of 67.2% (n = 193) of staff were positive about job security. Trainers and grooms were significantly less likely to report jobs as secure (χ² (52, n = 287) = 75.653, p < 0.05). The findings suggest that most of the racing industry positively received changes made by their employers to tackle the pandemic, and for staff still working during lockdown, their health and safety was prioritised. Continued development of employee support structures to promote job security and workforce stability is advised, which will minimise the disruption of staff changes on the care and welfare of the horses.

COVID-19: Impact on United Kingdom Horse Owners

COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic on 11 March 2020; the United Kingdom (UK) implemented quarantine measures shortly afterward, resulting in rapid changes in how owners managed and interacted with their horses. This study provides a rapid analysis of the initial impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the management of UK leisure and competition horses. A 17 question online survey was distributed via equestrian social media sites to ascertain the impact of COVID-19 on horse and yard management and on human-horse interactions. Frequency analysis combined with Chi-squared and thematic analyses identified the impact of COVID-19 on UK horse owners. Major changes within horse management and horse-human interactions were reported for the majority of horse owners (>65%), regardless of the establishment type or region. Social distancing and visiting restrictions were implemented at most yards, but nearly half were not providing hand sanitization or disinfection protocols for the shared areas/equipment to prevent cross-contamination between users. The financial impact of the pandemic combined with restricted access to veterinary professionals resulted in owners expressing concerns that horse health and welfare may be compromised as a result. Horse owners also felt that the reduced opportunities for horse-human interactions were negatively affecting their mental health and wellbeing.

Horses Used for Educational Purposes in New Zealand: A Descriptive Analysis of Their Use for Teaching

Simple Summary

Many equine and veterinary science degree programmes use horses during practical teaching classes. The use of horses during teaching was studied over a calendar year. The teaching horses were characterised as older non-reactive mares and geldings that had been used for teaching for a number of years after retirement from (harness) racing or sport. These horses were grouped into and managed as different herds based on suitability for specific practical teaching classes. The frequency of teaching activities per horse was relatively low (1–2 sessions per week). Two broad types of practical classes were identified which were characterised by the restraint method used (yards vs. stocks), duration of the class, and number of students per horse. The classes included rectal examinations (in stocks, shorter duration, few students) and general animal handling and husbandry, which included handling, lameness evaluation, clinical examination and foot trimming (in yards, longer duration, more students). Although the workload from teaching within this cohort of horses was low, more work to determine additional markers of teaching horses’ welfare may be required.

Abstract

Horses are used in practical teaching classes in many equine and veterinary science degree programmes to develop and refine the handling and clinical skills of students. In this study, the activities of 24 teaching horses grouped in three herds were investigated over an entire calendar year. Although also used for research and general husbandry, teaching-related activities were the predominant use of the horses. Herd B was used for a greater number of teaching sessions (median = 28, IQR = 27–29.5 per year) than herds M (median = 21, IQR = 20–21 per year) and T (median = 19.5, IQR = 13.75–25.5 per year), which translates to a relatively low workload (one or two weekly sessions during the teaching semester). Sedation was used in dentistry classes (in alignment with national best practice standards) but was rarely required for other teaching activities. Mare reproductive rectal- and medical rectal examination practical classes (specific to 5th-year veterinary teaching and characterised by more restraint (in stocks)) were significantly shorter and had fewer students per horse than the other practical classes. Although the low workload reported suggests an opportunity to increase students’ exposure to horses without compromising the horses’ welfare, further investigation to determine specific stressors to the horses in the teaching environment may be required.

Sport science relevance and integration in horseracing: perceptions of UK racehorse trainers

Whilst equestrian sport science research has expanded over recent years, and technologies to positively impact training and performance have been developed, long-standing traditions and experiential learning in the racing industry still appear to impede the integration of sport science knowledge. This study used semi-structured interviews to investigate the perceptions of eleven national hunt and flat-based racehorse trainers to determine the current status of sport science integration within the racing industry, the perceived barriers to its uptake, and areas where trainers sought further knowledge. Three key higher order themes emerged from the interviews: the current training and monitoring principles for health and fitness of racehorses, trainers’ attitudes toward sport science research, and areas for potential future research and integration of sports science in training. Subjective methods grounded in personal experience were found to form the basis of racehorse training principles, with the application of sport science minimal, namely due to poor integration strategies. Negative connotations arising from a general lack of understanding of the application of knowledge and a scepticism toward adapting already successful principles, as well as pressure from industry stakeholders, appear to create barriers to sport science uptake. Trainers felt a stronger evidence base emphasising performance benefits is needed to overcome these. Where trainers identified areas of research potential, many studies had already been undertaken, highlighting the necessity for effective dissemination strategies to demonstrate how research could apply to industry practice. Increased educational initiatives to showcase technology and improve trainer understanding and application of currently available sport science knowledge is also warranted.

A retrospective investigation of the impact of ‘eventing phase (dressage, show-jumping and cross-country)’ on pre-competition anxiety and self-confidence

Working in the discipline of eventing (the triathlon of equestrian sport), the present study aims to extend current literature on the use of psychological skills within equestrian sports, by understanding and identifying differences in levels of self-confidence and competitive anxiety. Each eventing phase (dressage, show-jumping and cross-country) was considered and its impact on anxiety and self-confidence analysed. Level of competition was considered a covariate and its effect on specific eventing phases and any associated influence on anxiety and self-confidence within eventing phase was analysed. An experimental, 3×3 factorial, within-subjects design was used. 57 participants (52 female and 5 male; 18 professional, 36 amateur and 3 undefined) completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R), a 17-item questionnaire measuring anxiety and self-confidence. Descriptive statistics identified the show-jumping phase had the largest impact on rider somatic anxiety (SA) and cognitive anxiety (CA). The cross-country phase had the highest self-confidence mean score. Spearman’s rank correlations showed both SA and CA were debilitative for all competition levels. Both SA and CA were found to be more debilitating in the show-jumping phase when self-confidence was low. MANCOVA analysis showed that eventing phase had significant effect on anxiety and self-confidence when controlling for level of competition. Dependent on the eventing phase riders are competing in, they experience different levels of arousal and self-confidence. When SA and CA are a debilitative source of anxiety, this could result in rider muscle tension which is not conducive to effective horse-rider communication. Coaches or sports psychologists should consider how to help riders manage their anxiety levels in relation to the competition phase, with the intention of enhancing self-confidence and enabling facilitative SA and CA in preparation for eventing performance.

Relationship between performance strategies, resilience qualities, riding experience and competitive performance of show jumping riders

Equestrian sports are considered high in risk, and successful athletes must achieve resilience to recover from adversities inherent to their riding career. The objective of this study is to identify which factors present in show jumping riders are related to resilient abilities, and how they may be improved. 101 British competitive show jumping riders were asked to complete a questionnaire about their riding experience and to respond to two tests: (1) test of performance strategies (TOPS 3), which analyses the use of self-talk, emotional control, automaticity, goal setting, imagery, activation, relaxation, negative thinking and attention control; and (2) Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC-10), which evaluates resilient abilities. Where available, competition results were also analysed. Resilience scores had positive correlations with ‘emotional control’ (r=0.518; P<0.001), and ‘emotional control’ had a positive predictive effect on resilience (χ2=8.508; P<0.005). There were indications of positive correlations between resilience and ‘activation’ (r=0.497; P<0.001), ‘automaticity’ (r=0.437; P<0.001), and of a negative correlation between resilience and ‘negative thinking’ (r=-0.416; P<0.001). Overall CD-RISC-10 mean value was 29.96. ‘Activation’ and ‘automaticity’ were more applicable for riders of higher perceived levels of skill. Responses suggest that ‘activation’ was employed more frequently by male than female riders (Z=-2.118; P<0.05), and that ‘negative thinking’ was more frequent in female than male riders (Z=-1.969; P<0.05). More significant correlations between performance strategies were found in professional (19) than in novice riders (5). Results indicate that the use of performance strategies may be beneficial in the development of resilience. In higher level riders, the development of one set of strategies tends to lead to the development of other strategies. The findings support that the ability to recover successfully from adversities may not be merely inherent, but also under individual control.

Psychological responses of elite young riders to the injury of their horses

Sport is considered a high-risk environment for athletes sustaining injury. Athletes are known to experience negative psychological responses to injury, which can destabilise identity. For athletes, identity is typically constructed around participation in sport, and after injury this identity can be threatened. Within equestrian sport, the addition of a partner athlete also at risk of injury presented a unique circumstance for investigation. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychological responses of elite young riders (YR) to the injury of their horses. Five riders competing internationally at YR level for dressage, show jumping and eventing were interviewed about their experiences when their horse suffered serious or career-ending injuries. Interview questions explored athletes’ careers, initial reactions to injury, coping mechanisms and return to elite competition. Thematic analysis revealed that riders re-evaluated their identity as elite athletes and experienced a significant sense of loss when their horses became injured. This appraisal of loss led to YR’s experiencing denial and guilt at the onset of injury akin to personal injury in athletes. As riders perceive the horse as part of the ‘athlete’ package, they are at heightened risk of injury-related psychological stress when compared to other individual athletes. Riders reported mixed views on common sources of social support, suggesting a need for pre-emptive coping education in addition to intervention resources within equestrian sport to minimise the psychological impact of injury, particularly at YR level.