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Oluwakayode A, Greer B, Meneely J, Berthiller F, Krska R, Medina A. Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Concentrations of Trichothecenes, Their Glucosides, and Emerging Fusarium Toxins in Naturally Contaminated, Irradiated, and Fusarium langsethiae Inoculated Oats. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:166. [PMID: 38668591 PMCID: PMC11055103 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Trichothecenes produced by Fusarium species are commonly detected in oats. However, the ratios of the concentrations of free trichothecenes and their conjugates and how they are impacted by different interacting environmental conditions are not well documented. This study aims to examine the effect of water activity (0.95 and 0.98 aw) and temperature (20 and 25 °C) stress on the production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol and their conjugates, as well as diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS). Multiple mycotoxins were detected using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry from 64 contaminated oat samples. The highest concentrations of HT-2-glucoside (HT-2-Glc) were observed at 0.98 aw and 20 °C, and were higher than other type A trichothecenes in the natural oats' treatments. However, no statistical differences were found between the mean concentrations of HT-2-Glc and HT-2 toxins in all storage conditions analysed. DAS concentrations were generally low and highest at 0.95 aw and 20 °C, while deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside levels were highest at 0.98 aw and 20 °C in the naturally contaminated oats. Emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin, moniliformin, and enniatins mostly increased with a rise in water activity and temperature in the naturally contaminated oats treatment. This study reinforces the importance of storage aw and temperature conditions in the high risk of free and modified toxin contamination of small cereal grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abimbola Oluwakayode
- Applied Mycology Group, Environment and AgriFood Theme, Cranfield University, College Rd., Wharley End, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK;
| | - Brett Greer
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (R.K.)
- The International Joint Research Centre on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Julie Meneely
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (R.K.)
- The International Joint Research Centre on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Pahonyothin Road, Khong Luang 12120, Thailand
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute for Global Food Security, National Measurement Laboratory: Centre of Excellence in Agriculture and Food Integrity, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (R.K.)
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Angel Medina
- Applied Mycology Group, Environment and AgriFood Theme, Cranfield University, College Rd., Wharley End, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK;
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Hoffmans Y, Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C, van der Fels-Klerx H. Factors during Production of Cereal-Derived Feed That Influence Mycotoxin Contents. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:301. [PMID: 35622548 PMCID: PMC9143035 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally present in cereal-based feed materials; however, due to adverse effects on animal health, their presence in derived animal feed should be minimized. A systematic literature search was conducted to obtain an overview of all factors from harvest onwards influencing the presence and concentration of mycotoxins in cereal-based feeds. The feed production processes covered included the harvest time, post-harvest practices (drying, cleaning, storage), and processing (milling, mixing with mycotoxin binders, extrusion cooking, ensiling). Delayed harvest supports the production of multiple mycotoxins. The way feed materials are dried after harvest influences the concentration of mycotoxins therein. Applying fungicides on the feed materials after harvest as well as cleaning and sorting can lower the concentration of mycotoxins. During milling, mycotoxins might be redistributed in cereal feed materials and fractions thereof. It is important to know which parts of the cereals are used for feed production and whether or not mycotoxins predominantly accumulate in these fractions. For feed production, mostly the milling fractions with outer parts of cereals, such as bran and shorts, are used, in which mycotoxins concentrate during processing. Wet-milling of grains can lower the mycotoxin content in these parts of the grain. However, this is typically accompanied by translocation of mycotoxins to the liquid fractions, which might be added to by-products used as feed. Mycotoxin binders can be added during mixing of feed materials. Although binders do not remove mycotoxins from the feed, the mycotoxins become less bioavailable to the animal and, in the case of food-producing animals, to the consumer, lowering the adverse effects of mycotoxins. The effect of extruding cereal feed materials is dependent on several factors, but in principle, mycotoxin contents are decreased after extrusion cooking. The results on ensiling are not uniform; however, most of the data show that mycotoxin production is supported during ensiling when oxygen can enter this process. Overall, the results of the literature review suggest that factors preventing mycotoxin production have greater impact than factors lowering the mycotoxin contents already present in feed materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette Hoffmans
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Sara Schaarschmidt
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany; (S.S.); (C.F.-H.)
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany; (S.S.); (C.F.-H.)
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Kolawole O, De Ruyck K, Greer B, Meneely J, Doohan F, Danaher M, Elliott C. Agronomic Factors Influencing the Scale of Fusarium Mycotoxin Contamination of Oats. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:965. [PMID: 34829252 PMCID: PMC8619034 DOI: 10.3390/jof7110965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven agronomic factors (crop season, farming system, harvest date, moisture, county, oat variety, and previous crop) were recorded for 202 oat crops grown across Ireland, and samples were analysed by LC-MS/MS for four major Fusarium mycotoxins: deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin. Type A trichothecenes were present in 62% of crops, with 7.4% exceeding European regulatory limits. DON (6.4%) and ZEN (9.9%) occurrences were relatively infrequent, though one and three samples were measured over their set limits, respectively. Overall, the type of farming system and the previous crop were the main factors identified as significantly influencing mycotoxin prevalence or concentration. Particularly, the adherence to an organic farming system and growing oats after a previous crop of grass were found to decrease contamination by type A trichothecenes. These are important findings and may provide valuable insights for many other types of cereal crops as Europe moves towards a much greater organic-based food system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwatobi Kolawole
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (C.E.)
| | - Karl De Ruyck
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, D15 KN3K Dublin, Ireland; (K.D.R.); (M.D.)
| | - Brett Greer
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (C.E.)
| | - Julie Meneely
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (C.E.)
| | - Fiona Doohan
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, College of Life Sciences, UCD, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Martin Danaher
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, D15 KN3K Dublin, Ireland; (K.D.R.); (M.D.)
| | - Christopher Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (B.G.); (J.M.); (C.E.)
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Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Methods to Predict Growth of F. sporotrichioides and Production of T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Treatments with Ethylene-Vinyl Alcohol Films Containing Pure Components of Essential Oils. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080545. [PMID: 34437416 PMCID: PMC8402422 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The efficacy of ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer films (EVOH) incorporating the essential oil components cinnamaldehyde (CINHO), citral (CIT), isoeugenol (IEG), or linalool (LIN) to control growth rate (GR) and production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins by Fusarium sporotrichioides cultured on oat grains under different temperature (28, 20, and 15 °C) and water activity (aw) (0.99 and 0.96) regimes was assayed. GR in controls/treatments usually increased with increasing temperature, regardless of aw, but no significant differences concerning aw were found. Toxin production decreased with increasing temperature. The effectiveness of films to control fungal GR and toxin production was as follows: EVOH-CIT > EVOH-CINHO > EVOH-IEG > EVOH-LIN. With few exceptions, effective doses of EVOH-CIT, EVOH-CINHO, and EVOH-IEG films to reduce/inhibit GR by 50%, 90%, and 100% (ED50, ED90, and ED100) ranged from 515 to 3330 µg/culture in Petri dish (25 g oat grains) depending on film type, aw, and temperature. ED90 and ED100 of EVOH-LIN were >3330 µg/fungal culture. The potential of several machine learning (ML) methods to predict F. sporotrichioides GR and T-2 and HT-2 toxin production under the assayed conditions was comparatively analyzed. XGBoost and random forest attained the best performance, support vector machine and neural network ranked third or fourth depending on the output, while multiple linear regression proved to be the worst.
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De Colli L, De Ruyck K, Abdallah MF, Finnan J, Mullins E, Kildea S, Spink J, Elliott C, Danaher M. Natural Co-Occurrence of Multiple Mycotoxins in Unprocessed Oats Grown in Ireland with Various Production Systems. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13030188. [PMID: 33806558 PMCID: PMC7998419 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The natural co-occurrence of 42 mycotoxins was investigated in unprocessed oat grains grown in Ireland. The sample set included a total of 208 oat crops harvested during 2015–2016 and produced using conventional, organic, or gluten free farming systems. A range of different toxins was identified, including the major type A (neosolaniol, HT-2 and T-2 toxins, T-2 triol, and T-2-glucoside, co-occurring in 21 samples) and B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside), enniatins (B1, B, and A1, co-occurring in 12 samples), as well as beauvericin, alternariol, mycophenolic acid, and sterigmatocystin. The influences of sowing season, year, and production system were investigated, eventually indicating that the latter factor may have a higher impact than others on the production of certain mycotoxins in oats. The most frequently quantified compounds were HT-2 (51%) and T-2 (41%) toxins, with gluten free oats containing significantly lower concentrations of HT-2 compared to conventionally produced oats. Although the prevalence and concentrations of mycotoxin found in oat samples in this study should be substantially reduced by processing. However, as mycotoxin occurrence is clearly influenced by multiple factors, controlled field trials should be carried out to define optimal agronomic practices and mitigate mycotoxin production. Furthermore, this work highlights the need for regularly testing cereal-based foods with multi-residue analytical methods with wider specificities than the traditionally screened and regulated toxins, to generate knowledge on the occurrence of several mycotoxins that are, to date, rarely investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo De Colli
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK;
- Food Safety Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland; (K.D.R.); (M.D.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Karl De Ruyck
- Food Safety Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland; (K.D.R.); (M.D.)
| | - Mohamed F. Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium;
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - John Finnan
- Crops Science Department, Teagasc, Oak Park, Carlow R93 XE12, Ireland; (J.F.); (E.M.); (S.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Ewen Mullins
- Crops Science Department, Teagasc, Oak Park, Carlow R93 XE12, Ireland; (J.F.); (E.M.); (S.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Steven Kildea
- Crops Science Department, Teagasc, Oak Park, Carlow R93 XE12, Ireland; (J.F.); (E.M.); (S.K.); (J.S.)
| | - John Spink
- Crops Science Department, Teagasc, Oak Park, Carlow R93 XE12, Ireland; (J.F.); (E.M.); (S.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Christopher Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK;
| | - Martin Danaher
- Food Safety Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland; (K.D.R.); (M.D.)
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Chen P, Xiang B, Shi H, Yu P, Song Y, Li S. Recent advances on type A trichothecenes in food and feed: Analysis, prevalence, toxicity, and decontamination techniques. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Foroud NA, Baines D, Gagkaeva TY, Thakor N, Badea A, Steiner B, Bürstmayr M, Bürstmayr H. Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains - An Update. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E634. [PMID: 31683661 PMCID: PMC6891312 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichothecenes are sesquiterpenoid mycotoxins produced by fungi from the order Hypocreales, including members of the Fusarium genus that infect cereal grain crops. Different trichothecene-producing Fusarium species and strains have different trichothecene chemotypes belonging to the Type A and B class. These fungi cause a disease of small grain cereals, called Fusarium head blight, and their toxins contaminate host tissues. As potent inhibitors of eukaryotic protein synthesis, trichothecenes pose a health risk to human and animal consumers of infected cereal grains. In 2009, Foroud and Eudes published a review of trichothecenes in cereal grains for human consumption. As an update to this review, the work herein provides a comprehensive and multi-disciplinary review of the Fusarium trichothecenes covering topics in chemistry and biochemistry, pathogen biology, trichothecene toxicity, molecular mechanisms of resistance or detoxification, genetics of resistance and breeding strategies to reduce their contamination of wheat and barley.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora A Foroud
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada.
| | - Danica Baines
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada.
| | - Tatiana Y Gagkaeva
- Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection (VIZR), St. Petersburg, Pushkin 196608, Russia.
| | - Nehal Thakor
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada.
| | - Ana Badea
- Brandon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Brandon, MB R7A 5Y3, Canada.
| | - Barbara Steiner
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Institute of Biotechnology in Plant Production, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln 3430, Austria.
| | - Maria Bürstmayr
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Institute of Biotechnology in Plant Production, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln 3430, Austria.
| | - Hermann Bürstmayr
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Institute of Biotechnology in Plant Production, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln 3430, Austria.
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Elaridi J, Yamani O, Al Matari A, Dakroub S, Attieh Z. Determination of Ochratoxin A (OTA), Ochratoxin B (OTB), T-2, and HT-2 Toxins in Wheat Grains, Wheat Flour, and Bread in Lebanon by LC-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E471. [PMID: 31409003 PMCID: PMC6723938 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cereals are prone to fungal infection during growth, harvesting, transportation, and/or storage. As a result, cereals such as wheat grains and wheat-derived products may be contaminated with mycotoxins leading to acute and chronic health exposure. The current study investigated the presence of the mycotoxins: ochratoxin A (OTA), ochratoxin B (OTB), T-2, and HT-2 toxins in samples of wheat grains (n = 50), wheat flour (n = 50), and bread (n = 37) from the main mills in Lebanon using LC-MS/MS. Accuracy ranged from 98-100%, recoveries from 93-105%, and intraday and interday precision were 5-7% and 9-12%, respectively. The tested wheat grains, wheat flour, and bread samples did not contain detectable levels of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and OTB. Four wheat flour samples (8% of flour samples) showed positive OTA levels ranging from 0.6-3.4 μg·kg-1 with an arithmetic mean of 1.9 ± 0.2 μg·kg-1. Only one sample contained an OTA concentration greater than the limit set by the European Union (3 μg·kg-1) for wheat-derived products. This study suggests that mycotoxin contamination of wheat grains, wheat flour, and bread in Lebanon is currently not a serious public health concern. However, surveillance strategies and monitoring programs must be routinely implemented to ensure minimal mycotoxin contamination of wheat-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jomana Elaridi
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, P.O. Box 13-5053, Beirut 1102-2801, Lebanon.
| | - Osama Yamani
- Department of Laboratory Science and Technology, American University of Science and Technology, Achrafieh 16-6452, Lebanon
| | - Amira Al Matari
- Department of Laboratory Science and Technology, American University of Science and Technology, Achrafieh 16-6452, Lebanon
| | - Saada Dakroub
- Department of Laboratory Science and Technology, American University of Science and Technology, Achrafieh 16-6452, Lebanon
| | - Zouhair Attieh
- Department of Laboratory Science and Technology, American University of Science and Technology, Achrafieh 16-6452, Lebanon.
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Shi H, Schwab W, Yu P. Natural Occurrence and Co-Contamination of Twelve Mycotoxins in Industry-Submitted Cool-Season Cereal Grains Grown under a Low Heat Unit Climate Condition. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E160. [PMID: 30871204 PMCID: PMC6468805 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to evaluate the prevalence of mycotoxins in industry-submitted cool-season barley and wheat grown under low heat unit climate conditions. Seventy-two barley samples and 83 wheat samples were submitted by producers and industry from May 2016 to May 2017. The concentrations of twelve common mycotoxins, including nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), α-zearalenol (α-ZAL), β-zearalenol (β-ZAL), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), T-2 toxin (T-2), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), were determined using the liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method. Mycotoxins were detected in 40 barley (56%) and 35 wheat (42%) samples submitted by producers and industry. DON showed the highest incidence in barley (44%) and wheat (33%). None of the barley samples contained detectable DAS and no wheat samples tested positive for α-ZAL, DAS, T-2, or AFB1. Co-occurrence of DON and other mycotoxins was frequently observed. Among the mycotoxin-positive samples, 70% of barley samples and 54% of wheat samples were co-contaminated with at least two mycotoxins. Four barley (6%) and five wheat (6%) samples contained levels of DON above 1000 μg/kg (regulatory level in diets for lactating dairy animals) and HT-2 content in five barley (7%) and four wheat (5%) samples exceeded 100 μg/kg (regulatory level in diets for cattle and poultry). Overall, contamination of these mycotoxins was more frequent and more severe in barley in comparison with wheat that was submitted by producers and industry. Comprehensive strategies, including the prevention of Fusarium toxins contamination, the routine monitoring of their prevalence, the detoxification of them in feed and food, as well as the inhibition of their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, are highly required. A rapid detection method needs to be developed to screen mycotoxins in industry-submitted cool-season cereal grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Shi
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, 6D10 Agriculture Building, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Conservation & Utilization of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Animal Genetic Resources, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China.
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Guangdong 528000, China.
| | - Warren Schwab
- Prairie Diagnostic Services, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada.
| | - Peiqiang Yu
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, 6D10 Agriculture Building, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada.
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Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C. The Fate of Mycotoxins During the Processing of Wheat for Human Consumption. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:556-593. [PMID: 33350125 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are a potential health threat in cereals including wheat. In the European Union (EU), mycotoxin maximum levels are laid down for cereal raw materials and final food products. For wheat and wheat-based products, the EU maximum levels apply to deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone, aflatoxins, and ochratoxin A. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins and their legal limits and on how processing of wheat can affect such contaminants, from raw material to highly processed final products, based on relevant scientific studies published in the literature. The potential compliance with EU maximum levels is discussed. Of the four mycotoxins regulated in wheat-based foods in the EU, most data are available for DON, whereas aflatoxins were rarely studied in the processing of wheat. Furthermore, available data on the effect of processing are outlined for mycotoxins not regulated by EU law-including modified and emerging mycotoxins-and which cover DON derivatives (DON-3-glucoside, mono-acetyl-DONs, norDONs, deepoxy-DON), nivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, and fumonisins. The processing steps addressed in this review cover primary processing (premilling and milling operations) and secondary processing procedures (such as fermentation and thermal treatments). A special focus is on the production of baked goods, and processing factors for DON in wheat bread production were estimated. For wheat milling products derived from the endosperm and for white bread, compliance with legal requirements seems to be mostly achievable when applying good practices. In the case of wholemeal products, bran-enriched products, or high-cereal low-moisture bakery products, this appears to be challenging and improved technology and/or selection of high-quality raw materials would be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Schaarschmidt
- Dept. Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Inst. for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-St. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Dept. Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Inst. for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-St. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany
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Porricelli ACR, Lippolis V, Valenzano S, Cortese M, Suman M, Zanardi S, Pascale M. Optimization and Validation of a Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay for Rapid Detection of T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Cereals and Cereal-Based Products. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-016-0527-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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13
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Lattanzio VMT, Ciasca B, Terzi V, Ghizzoni R, McCormick SP, Pascale M. Study of the natural occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and their glucosyl derivatives from field barley to malt by high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 32:1647-55. [PMID: 25952699 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1048750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports a new method for the determination of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and their glucosylated derivatives in cereals, and some survey data aimed at obtaining more comprehensive information on the co-occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and their glucosylated derivatives in naturally contaminated cereal samples. For these purposes, barley samples originating from a Northern Italian area were analysed by LC-HRMS for the presence of T-2, HT-2 and relevant glucosyl derivatives. Quantitative analysis of T-2 and HT-2 glucosides was performed for the first time using a recently made available standard of T-2 glucoside. The glucosyl derivative of HT-2 was detected at levels up to 163 µg kg(-1) in 17 of the 18 analysed unprocessed barley grains, whereas the monoglucosyl derivative of T-2 toxin was detected in only a few samples and at low µg kg(-1) levels. The ratio between glucosylated toxins (sum of T-2 and HT-2 glucosides) and native toxins (sum of T-2 and HT-2) ranged from 2% to 283%. Moreover, taking advantage of the possibility of retrospective analysis of full-scan HRMS chromatograms, samples were also screened for the presence of other type-A trichothecenes, namely neosolaniol, diacetoxyscirpenol and their monoglucosyl derivatives, which were detected at trace levels. A subset of nine different samples was subjected to micro-maltation in order to carry out a preliminary investigation on the fate of T-2, HT-2 and relevant glucosides along the malting process. Mycotoxin reduction from cleaned barley to malt was observed at rates ranging from 4% to 87%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica M T Lattanzio
- a National Research Council of Italy (CNR) , Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA) , Bari , Italy
| | - Biancamaria Ciasca
- a National Research Council of Italy (CNR) , Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA) , Bari , Italy
| | - Valeria Terzi
- b Council for Agricultural Research and Economics , Genomics Research Centre, CRA-GPG , Fiorenzuola d'Arda (PC) , Italy
| | - Roberta Ghizzoni
- b Council for Agricultural Research and Economics , Genomics Research Centre, CRA-GPG , Fiorenzuola d'Arda (PC) , Italy
| | - Susan P McCormick
- c US Department of Agriculture , Bacterial Foodborne Pathogens & Mycology Research Unit, National Center for Utilization Research Laboratory , Peoria , IL , USA
| | - Michelangelo Pascale
- a National Research Council of Italy (CNR) , Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA) , Bari , Italy
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Mateo E, Valle-Algarra F, Jiménez M, Magan N. Impact of three sterol-biosynthesis inhibitors on growth of Fusarium langsethiae and on T-2 and HT-2 toxin production in oat grain under different ecological conditions. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Kokkonen M, Medina A, Magan N. Comparative study of water and temperature relations of growth and T-2/HT-2 toxin production by strains of Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium langsethiae. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2012. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2012.1406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study has compared the effect of water activity (aw, 0.995-0.93) and two temperatures (15, 25 °C) on the growth and HT-2 and T-2 toxin production by three strains of Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium langsethiae in an oat-based medium. There were very little intra-strain differences for each of the species in relation to growth at 0.995-0.93 aw and 15 and 25 °C. Inter-species comparisons showed that at 0.995 and 0.98 aw growth was similar at both temperatures. However, under water stress at 0.95 and 0.93 awF. sporotrichioides strains were more tolerant than those of F. langsethiae. Statistical analyses showed that aw and temperature were significant factors for both species, while strain differences were not (P=0.05). In contrast, the patterns of production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins were very different from that for growth. For F. sporotrichioides, a generally higher amount of toxin was produced at 15 than at 25 °C, with a maximum produced at 0.995 aw, while the production decreased with water stress. Interestingly, maximum production of T-2+HT-2 toxin was achieved by F. langsethiae at 0.98 aw and 25 °C, with very little produced at 0.93 aw. Statistically, aw was the most significant (P=0.05) factor for the mean of the three strains of both species with a significant inter-species difference in terms of toxin production. This was confirmed by the changes in the ratio of HT-2:T-2 toxin in relation to the aw × temperature conditions studied. These results are discussed in the context of the effect of environment on the relative importance of these two species in contaminating oats with these toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Kokkonen
- Finnish Food Safety Authority (EVIRA), Chemistry and Toxicology Unit, Mustialankatu 3, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield Health, Cranfield University, Vincent Building, Bedford MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - A. Medina
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield Health, Cranfield University, Vincent Building, Bedford MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - N. Magan
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield Health, Cranfield University, Vincent Building, Bedford MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
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Van Der Fels-Klerx H, Klemsdal S, Hietaniemi V, Lindblad M, Ioannou-Kakouri E, Van Asselt E. Mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities in relation to climate in North West Europe. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2012; 29:1581-92. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2012.689996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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17
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Determination of HT-2 and T-2 toxins in oats and wheat by ultra-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection. Talanta 2012; 89:231-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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Mateo EM, Valle-Algarra F, Mateo R, Jiménez M, Magan N. Effect of fenpropimorph, prochloraz and tebuconazole on growth and production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins by Fusarium langsethiae in oat-based medium. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 151:289-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Chaudhary P, Shank RA, Montina T, Goettel JT, Foroud NA, Hazendonk P, Eudes F. Hydrogen-bonding interactions in T-2 toxin studied using solution and solid-state NMR. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:1310-31. [PMID: 22069698 PMCID: PMC3210463 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3101310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Revised: 09/28/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The structure of T-2 toxin in the solid-state is limited to X-ray crystallographic studies, which lack sufficient resolution to provide direct evidence for hydrogen-bonding interactions. Furthermore, its solution-structure, despite extensive Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) studies, has provided little insight into its hydrogen-bonding behavior, thus far. Hydrogen-bonding interactions are often an important part of biological activity. In order to study these interactions, the structure of T-2 toxin was compared in both the solution- and solid-state using NMR Spectroscopy. It was determined that the solution- and solid-state structure differ dramatically, as indicated by differences in their carbon chemical shifts, these observations are further supported by solution proton spectral parameters and exchange behavior. The slow chemical exchange process and cross-relaxation dynamics with water observed between the hydroxyl hydrogen on C-3 and water supports the existence of a preferential hydrogen bonding interaction on the opposite side of the molecule from the epoxide ring, which is known to be essential for trichothecene toxicity. This result implies that these hydrogen-bonding interactions could play an important role in the biological function of T-2 toxin and posits towards a possible interaction for the trichothecene class of toxins and the ribosome. These findings clearly illustrate the importance of utilizing solid-state NMR for the study of biological compounds, and suggest that a more detailed study of this whole class of toxins, namely trichothecenes, should be pursued using this methodology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Chaudhary
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge AB T1K 3M4, Canada; (P.C.); (R.A.S.); (T.M.); (J.T.G.)
| | - Roxanne A. Shank
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge AB T1K 3M4, Canada; (P.C.); (R.A.S.); (T.M.); (J.T.G.)
- Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 5403-1st Avenue South, Lethbridge AB T1J 4B1, Canada;
| | - Tony Montina
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge AB T1K 3M4, Canada; (P.C.); (R.A.S.); (T.M.); (J.T.G.)
| | - James T. Goettel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge AB T1K 3M4, Canada; (P.C.); (R.A.S.); (T.M.); (J.T.G.)
| | - Nora A. Foroud
- Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 5403-1st Avenue South, Lethbridge AB T1J 4B1, Canada;
| | - Paul Hazendonk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge AB T1K 3M4, Canada; (P.C.); (R.A.S.); (T.M.); (J.T.G.)
| | - François Eudes
- Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 5403-1st Avenue South, Lethbridge AB T1J 4B1, Canada;
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Pascale M, Haidukowski M, Lattanzio VMT, Silvestri M, Ranieri R, Visconti A. Distribution of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in milling fractions of durum wheat. J Food Prot 2011; 74:1700-7. [PMID: 22004818 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-11-149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The effect of processing on mycotoxin content in milling fractions has been investigated in 10 samples of durum wheat contaminated with T-2 and HT-2 toxins at levels ranging from 97 to 5,954 μg/kg (sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins). Either naturally contaminated samples or samples artificially inoculated with Fusarium sporotrichioides under field conditions were used. A method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry coupled with immunoaffinity column cleanup was validated in-house for the simultaneous analysis of both toxins in a variety of matrices, including uncleaned wheat, cleaned wheat, screenings, bran, red dog, fine middlings, and semolina. Mean recoveries from samples spiked with T-2 and HT-2 toxins at levels of 100 μg/kg ranged from 85 to 107%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) lower than 14%. The milling process led to an increase of T-2 and HT-2 toxin contents up to 13- and 5-fold in screenings and bran, respectively, compared with occurrence in the uncleaned wheat; however, an overall reduction of T-2 and HT-2 toxins by 54% (RSD, 20%) and 89% (RSD, 3%) was observed in cleaned wheat and in semolina, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelangelo Pascale
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), via G. Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy.
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van der Fels-Klerx H, Stratakou I. T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in grain and grain-based commodities in Europe: occurrence, factors affecting occurrence, co-occurrence and toxicological effects. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2010. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2010.1237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of the occurrence of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in cereals in Europe and derived food products, factors influencing the occurrence, co-occurrence with other trichothecenes, and toxicological effects of T-2 and HT-2 in human. Of all cereals, oats showed to be most susceptible to T-2/HT-2 contamination. Particularly, oats grown in Scandinavia and UK in the period 2003-2007 were highly contaminated. This contamination has reduced in 2008 and 2009. In raw cereals, T-2 and HT-2 levels were highly correlated with each other in most instances, with the HT-2 level being two to seven times higher than the T-2 level. The toxin levels showed not to be correlated with levels of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. The occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 in the field varied between years, regions, cereal grain varieties, sowing time, and precrop. Organically produced cereals contained lower T-2 and HT-2 levels as compared to conventionally grown cereals. Little or no effects from using fungicides was seen. Processing cereals resulted in low T-2 and HT-2 levels in food products, although oat products contained some T-2 and HT-2. The by-products from food processing, often used for animal feeding, frequently were highly contaminated. T-2 and HT-2 showed to have high acute and subacute toxicity, as they caused haematotoxic, immunotoxic, cytotoxic, and dermal effects. Carcinogenicity of T-2 and HT-2 in human has not been proven. Outbreaks of human toxicosis caused by trichothecenes, including T-2 and HT-2, have been reported. The present overview is deemed to be valuable for risk assessments at the European level, planned to be held by EFSA. It also provides directions for further research, including the ecology of the fungi responsible for T-2 and HT-2, and agronomical practices to reduce the contamination in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - I. Stratakou
- RIKILT, Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Toxicology, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8000, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Medina A, Magan N. Temperature and water activity effects on production of T-2 and HT-2 by Fusarium langsethiae strains from north European countries. Food Microbiol 2010; 28:392-8. [PMID: 21356443 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2010.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study has examined the effect of ecophysiological factors, water activity (a(w), 0.995-0.90) and temperature (10-37 °C), on the T-2 and HT-2 toxins production by Fusarium langsethiae. Two dimensional profiles for optimum and marginal conditions have been built for two strains from each of four northern European countries (UK, Norway, Sweden, Finland) on an oat-based medium. This showed that the optimum a(w) and temperature conditions for T-2 + HT-2 production was between 0.98-0.995, and 20-30 °C respectively. Kruskal-Wallis analysis of ranks showed a statistically significant differences between the different a(w) levels examined (P < 0.001) but no significant effect of the temperatures examined. The ratio of HT-2/T-2 was investigated and non-uniform distribution of HT-2 toxin was found under different ecological conditions. No statistically significant differences were found for the mean toxin production between strains from the different countries. Intra-strain differences in toxin production was only found for those from Finland (P-value = 0.0247). The growth/no growth and toxin/no toxin conditions in relation to a(w) x temperature have been constructed for the first time. This knowledge will be useful in developing prevention strategies to minimise T-2 and HT-2 toxin contamination by strains of F. langsethiae on important small grain cereals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Medina
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield Health, Vincent Building, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK.
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van der Fels‐Klerx H. Occurrence data of trichothecene mycotoxins T‐2 toxin and HT‐2 toxin in food and feed. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2010.en-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Synthesis and application of a T-2 toxin imprinted polymer. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:2879-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.02.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Revised: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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