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Lilly M, Rheeder J, Proctor R, Gelderblom W. FUM gene expression and variation in fumonisin production of clonal isolates of Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2020.2626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
B-series fumonisins (FBs) are a family of carcinogenic mycotoxins that commonly occur in maize. These mycotoxins cause multiple diseases in animals and are epidemiologically associated with several human diseases in populations for which maize is a dietary staple. FBs are produced by multiple genera of the fungi Aspergillus, Fusarium and Tolypocladium, but the plant pathogen Fusarium verticillioides is considered the primary cause of FB contamination in maize. One F. verticillioides strain, MRC 826, is reported to produce high levels of FBs. However, in the current study, 18 isolates derived from strain MRC 826 exhibited highly variable levels of FB, which negatively correlated (r=-0.333; P<0.008) with fungal growth. Microsatellite analysis confirmed that all MRC 826 derived isolates examined were clonal, and 100% DNA sequence identity was observed across the FUM gene clusters of two high FB producing and two low FB producing isolates. At the gene expression level, qRT-PCR at each time point (7, 14, 21 and 28 days of incubation) showed differential upregulation of selected FUM genes in the high compared to the low FB isolates. Variation in FB production appears due to differences in FUM gene expression, most likely caused by sequence differences at unexamined loci not part of the FUM cluster or from epigenetic influences. Clarification of the genetic/epigenetic basis for quantitative differences in fumonisin production among strains and isolates of F. verticillioides has potential to reveal targets for reducing FB contamination in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Lilly
- Applied Microbial and Health Biotechnology Institute, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - J.P. Rheeder
- Applied Microbial and Health Biotechnology Institute, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
- Department of Biotechnology and Consumer Science, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - R.H. Proctor
- US Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research Unit, 1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - W.C.A. Gelderblom
- Applied Microbial and Health Biotechnology Institute, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X9, 7602 Matieland, South Africa
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Alberts J, Rheeder J, Gelderblom W, Shephard G, Burger HM. Rural Subsistence Maize Farming in South Africa: Risk Assessment and Intervention models for Reduction of Exposure to Fumonisin Mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060334. [PMID: 31212811 PMCID: PMC6628387 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize is a staple crop in rural subsistence regions of southern Africa, is mainly produced for direct household consumption and is often contaminated with high levels of mycotoxins. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins is a risk factor for human diseases as it is implicated in the development of cancer, neural tube defects as well as stunting in children. Although authorities may set maximum levels, these regulations are not effective in subsistence farming communities. As maize is consumed in large quantities, exposure to mycotoxins will surpass safe levels even where the contamination levels are below the regulated maximum levels. It is clear that the lowering of exposure in these communities requires an integrated approach. Detailed understanding of agricultural practices, mycotoxin occurrence, climate change/weather patterns, human exposure and risk are warranted to guide adequate intervention programmes. Risk communication and creating awareness in affected communities are also critical. A range of biologically based products for control of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in maize have been developed and commercialised. Application of these methods is limited due to a lack of infrastructure and resources. Other challenges regarding integration and sustainability of technological and community-based mycotoxin reduction strategies include (i) food security, and (ii) the traditional use of mouldy maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Alberts
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - John Rheeder
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Wentzel Gelderblom
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Gordon Shephard
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Hester-Mari Burger
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
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Pitt JI, Miller JD. A Concise History of Mycotoxin Research. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7021-7033. [PMID: 27960261 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins entered human food supplies about the time when mankind first began to cultivate crops and to store them from one season to the next, perhaps 10,000 years ago. The storage of cereals probably initiated the transition by mankind from hunter-gatherer to cultivator, at the same time providing a vast new ecological niche for fungi pathogenic on grain crops or saprophytic on harvested grain, many of which produced mycotoxins. Grains have always been the major source of mycotoxins in the diet of man and his domestic animals. In the historical context, ergotism from Claviceps purpurea in rye has been known probably for more than 2000 years and caused the deaths of many thousands of people in Europe in the last millennium. Known in Japan since the 17th century, acute cardiac beriberi associated with the consumption of moldy rice was found to be due to citreoviridin produced by Penicillium citreonigrum. This toxin was believed to be only of historic importance until its reemergence in Brazil a few years ago. Other Penicillium toxins, including ochratoxin A, once considered to be a possible cause of Balkan endemic nephropathy, are treated in a historical context. The role of Fusarium toxins in human and animal health, especially T-2 toxin in alimentary toxic aleukia in Russia in the 1940s and fumonisins in equine leucoencephalomalasia, is set out in some detail. Finally, this paper documents the story of the research that led to our current understanding of the formation of aflatoxins in grains and nuts, due to the growth of Aspergillus flavus and its role, in synergy with the hepatitis B virus, in human liver cancer. During a period of climate change and greatly reduced crop diversity on a global basis, researchers tasked with monitoring the food system need to be aware of fungal toxins that might have been rare in their working careers that can reappear.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Crops, Agricultural/chemistry
- Crops, Agricultural/history
- Crops, Agricultural/microbiology
- Food Contamination/analysis
- Fungi/genetics
- Fungi/metabolism
- History, 15th Century
- History, 16th Century
- History, 17th Century
- History, 18th Century
- History, 19th Century
- History, 20th Century
- History, 21st Century
- History, Ancient
- History, Medieval
- Humans
- Mycotoxins/chemistry
- Mycotoxins/history
- Mycotoxins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- John I Pitt
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food , P.O. Box 52, North Ryde, New South Wales 1670, Australia
| | - J David Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Carleton University , Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
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Characterization of cell death caused by diplodiatoxin and dipmatol, toxic metabolites of Stenocarpella maydis. Toxicon 2015; 102:14-24. [PMID: 26004494 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Diplodiosis, a neuromycotoxicosis of cattle and sheep grazing on mouldy cobs infected by Stenocarpella maydis, is considered the last major veterinary mycotoxicosis for which the causative mycotoxin is still unknown. The current study was aimed at characterizing the cell death observed in mouse neuroblastoma (Neuro-2a), Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) and Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cell lines exposed to the S. maydis metabolites (i.e. diplodiatoxin and dipmatol) by investigating the roles of necrosis and apoptosis. Necrosis was investigated using the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage and propidium iodide (PI) flow cytometry assays and apoptosis was evaluated using the caspase-3/7 and Annexin V flow cytometry assays. In addition, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to correlate the cell death pathways observed in this study with their typical morphologies. Both diplodiatoxin and dipmatol (750 μM) induced necrosis and caspase-dependent apoptosis in Neuro-2a, CHO-K1 and MDBK cells. Ultrastructurally, the two mycotoxins induced mitochondrial damage, cytoplasmic vacuolation and nuclear fragmentation in the three cell lines. These findings have laid a foundation for future studies aimed at elucidating in detail the mechanism of action of the S. maydis metabolites.
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Masango M, Flett B, Ellis C, Botha C. Stenocarpella maydis and its toxic metabolites: a South African perspective on diplodiosis. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Stenocarpella maydis is one of the most prevalent ear and stalk rot pathogens of maize globally, causing reductions of grain quality and yield. Various molecular methods, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques and nucleotide microarrays, have been developed for the identification of S. maydis infestation in maize grain. In addition to diplodiatoxin, new metabolites, namely dipmatol, diplonine and chaetoglobosins K and L, have been isolated from S. maydis infected cultures. S. maydis infected maize is also associated with intoxication in ruminants. Diplodiosis, a nervous disorder of cattle and sheep, results from ingestion of mouldy ears, kernels and maize stubble infected by S. maydis. Although this disease is most common in southern Africa, it has also been reported in Australia, Argentina and Brazil. Diplodiosis is characterised by reluctance of the animals to move, a wide-based stance, incoordination, paralysis and death. Myelin degeneration (status spongiosis) is the only histopathological change observed in affected animals, especially in cases of perinatal mortality. To date, none of the purified S. maydis metabolites has been administered to ruminants in order to reproduce diplodiosis. However, recent studies have focused on investigating the toxicity of the metabolites on cell cultures. Cytotoxicity studies where cultured cells were exposed to the S. maydis metabolites indicated that diplodiatoxin and dipmatol affected the activity of the mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase enzyme and the overall viability of the cells. More detailed in vitro toxicity studies are still required to elucidate how the currently available S. maydis metabolites influence parameters such as the mechanism of cell death. Development of analytical test methods to quantify and establish the presence and distribution of these mycotoxins in infected maize commodities also needs investigation. It is also critical that the role of S. maydis stalk rot be evaluated as a potential source and cause of diplodiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.G. Masango
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (ARC-OVI), Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, Pretoria, South Africa
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0110, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - B.C. Flett
- Agricultural Research Council-Grain Crops Institute (ARC-GCI), Private Bag X1251, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
- Unit of Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - C.E. Ellis
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (ARC-OVI), Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort 0110, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - C.J. Botha
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0110, Pretoria, South Africa
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Shephard G, Berthiller F, Burdaspal P, Crews C, Jonker M, Krska R, Lattanzio V, MacDonald S, Malone R, Maragos C, Sabino M, Solfrizzo M, van Egmond H, Whitaker T. Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2011-2012. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2013. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2012.1492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights developments in mycotoxin analysis and sampling over a period between mid-2011 and mid- 2012. It covers the major mycotoxins aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxin, patulin, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. A section on mycotoxins in botanicals and spices is also included. Methods for mycotoxin determination continue to be developed using a wide range of analytical systems ranging from rapid immunochemical-based methods to the latest advances in mass spectrometry. This review follows the format of previous reviews in this series (i.e. sections on individual mycotoxins), but due to the rapid spread and developments in the field of multimycotoxin methods by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, a separate section has been devoted to advances in this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- G.S. Shephard
- PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, P.O. Box 19070, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa
| | - F. Berthiller
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin-Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - P.A. Burdaspal
- Spanish Food Safety and Nutrition Agency, National Centre for Food, km 5.100, 28220 Majadahonda (Madrid), Spain
| | - C. Crews
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - M.A. Jonker
- Cluster Natural Toxins and Pesticides, RIKILT Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - R. Krska
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin-Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - V.M.T. Lattanzio
- National Research Council, Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Via Amendola 122/o, 700126 Bari, Italy
| | - S. MacDonald
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - R.J. Malone
- Trilogy Analytical Laboratory, 870 Vossbrink Drive, Washington, MO 63090, USA
| | - C. Maragos
- USDA, ARS National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. University St, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - M. Sabino
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Av Dr Arnaldo 355, 01246-902 São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - M. Solfrizzo
- National Research Council, Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Via Amendola 122/o, 700126 Bari, Italy
| | - H.P. van Egmond
- Cluster Natural Toxins and Pesticides, RIKILT Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - T.B. Whitaker
- Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, N.C. State University, P.O. Box 7625, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
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Warth B, Parich A, Atehnkeng J, Bandyopadhyay R, Schuhmacher R, Sulyok M, Krska R. Quantitation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Burkina Faso and Mozambique using a modern LC-MS/MS multitoxin method. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:9352-9363. [PMID: 22835072 DOI: 10.1021/jf302003n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this study an LC-MS/MS multitoxin method covering a total of 247 fungal and bacterial metabolites was applied to the analysis of different foods and feedstuffs from Burkina Faso and Mozambique. Overall, 63 metabolites were determined in 122 samples of mainly maize and groundnuts and a few samples of sorghum, millet, rice, wheat, soy, dried fruits, other processed foods and animal feeds. Aflatoxin B(1) was observed more frequently in maize (Burkina Faso, 50% incidence, median = 23.6 μg/kg; Mozambique, 46% incidence, median = 69.9 μg/kg) than in groundnuts (Burkina Faso, 22% incidence, median = 10.5 μg/kg; Mozambique, 14% incidence, median = 3.4 μg/kg). Fumonisin B(1) concentrations in maize were higher in Mozambique (92% incidence, median = 869 μg/kg) than in Burkina Faso (81% incidence, median = 269 μg/kg). In addition, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and other less reported mycotoxins such as citrinin, alternariol, cyclopiazonic acid, sterigmatocystin, moniliformin, beauvericin, and enniatins were detected. Up to 28 toxic fungal metabolites were quantitated in a single sample, emphasizing the great variety of mycotoxin coexposure. Most mycotoxins have not been reported before in either country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Austria
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