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Dänicke S, Saltzmann J, Waurich B, Wöckel A, Wippermann W, Hermenau G, Wittich J, Bannert E, Rachidi F, Hufe P, May D, Swalve H, Starke A, Schären-Bannert M. A method for estimating the outer exposure of dairy cows to deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) as a precondition for risk assessment based on inner exposure with toxin residue levels in blood and urine as indicators. Mycotoxin Res 2024; 40:369-387. [PMID: 38671221 PMCID: PMC11258108 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-024-00533-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
DON and ZEN residues in the blood and urine of dairy cows can be used to predict the outer exposure to DON and ZEN expressed per kilogram diet for a risk evaluation based on comparisons to critical dietary concentrations. This method was used to evaluate the exposure of dairy cows from 12 farms located in Brandenburg, Germany, fed rations with unknown DON and ZEN concentrations (N = 244). The corresponding diet concentrations predicted by different methods from analyzed blood and urine samples varied significantly amongst farms from 0 to 1.6 mg/kg for DON and 0 to 3.0 mg/kg for ZEN at a reference dry matter content of 88% but independently of lactational state (post-partum vs. early lactation). This significant variation was noticed below the critical dietary DON concentration of 5 mg/kg, while the ZEN concentration in one farm exceeded the critical ZEN level of 0.5 mg/kg markedly. Predicted DON concentrations of rations increased with the proportion of maize silage, while the high ZEN concentration found in one farm was most likely related to a higher proportion of sugar beet pulp supposedly highly contaminated by ZEN. Exceeding the critical dietary ZEN concentration and significant variations in DON contents below the critical level was not related to performance, reproductive performance, and health-related traits of cows. For a more consistent evaluation of possible associations between the inner exposure of cows to DON and ZEN, more frequent longitudinal observations of both mycotoxin residue levels and performance and health traits are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Janine Saltzmann
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Benno Waurich
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, University of Halle, Halle, Germany
| | - Adriana Wöckel
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wolf Wippermann
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Guntram Hermenau
- LVAT-Institute for Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Groß Kreutz, Germany
| | - Julia Wittich
- LVAT-Institute for Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Groß Kreutz, Germany
| | - Erik Bannert
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Fanny Rachidi
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Peter Hufe
- LVAT-Institute for Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Groß Kreutz, Germany
| | - Detlef May
- LVAT-Institute for Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Groß Kreutz, Germany
| | - Hermann Swalve
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, University of Halle, Halle, Germany
| | - Alexander Starke
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Melanie Schären-Bannert
- Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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Tolosa J, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ruiz MJ, Vila-Donat P. Multi-mycotoxin occurrence in feed, metabolism and carry-over to animal-derived food products: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 158:112661. [PMID: 34762978 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The world requests for raw materials used in animal feed has been steadily rising in the last years driven by higher demands for livestock production. Mycotoxins are frequent toxic metabolites present in these raw materials. The exposure of farm animals to mycotoxins could result in undesirable residues in animal-derived food products. Thus, the potential ingestion of edible animal products (milk, meat and fish) contaminated with mycotoxins constitutes a public health concern, since they enter the food chain and may cause adverse effects upon human health. The present review summarizes the state-of-the-art on the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed, their metabolism and carry-over into animal source foodstuffs, focusing particularly on the last decade. Maximum levels (MLs) for various mycotoxins have been established for a number of raw feed materials and animal food products. Such values are sometimes exceeded, however. Aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCs) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed, with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) predominating in milk and dairy products, and OTA in meat by-products. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed raw materials tends to be the rule rather than the exception, and the carry-over of mycotoxins from feed to animal source foods is more than proven.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tolosa
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain
| | - Y Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain
| | - M J Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain
| | - P Vila-Donat
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain.
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Horky P, Gruberova HA, Aulichova T, Malyugina S, Slama P, Pavlik A, Skladanka J, Skoric M, Skalickova S. Protective effect of a new generation of activated and purified bentonite in combination with yeast and phytogenic substances on mycotoxin challenge in pigs. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0259132. [PMID: 34705867 PMCID: PMC8550360 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The study aimed to investigate the efficacy of new mycotoxin adsorbents based on purified and activated bentonites combined with yeast and phytogenic compounds in fattening pigs. The experiment involved 96 pigs (31.2±2.4 kg). Control (C) group was fed a diet naturally contaminated with mycotoxins (5 mg/kg deoxynivalenol, DON) without an adsorbent. Treated groups received the feed with mycotoxin adsorbents: purified and activated bentonite (T1), purified and activated bentonite, yeast derivatives, phytogenic substances (T2), and purified, activated, and sulphurated bentonite with phytogenic substances (T3). Evaluated parameters involved growth performance, organ weight, small intestine and liver histopathology, complete blood count, serum biochemistry, antioxidant status of the organism and total and free DON content in urine. In all treated groups, an significant increase in intestinal GSH and GSH/GSSG ratio was observed when compared to C. No significant effects on liver and kidney weight, complete blood count, serum or intestinal malondialdehyde concentration, or total/free DON content in urine were observed. All adsorbents improved histopathological findings in the liver when compared to C. Moreover, T1, and T2 groups showed no presence of inflammatory reaction or necrotic changes in the livers. Although, mycotoxin adsorbents investigated in this study had no significant impact on pig growth performance, they reduced the oxidative stress, and on the tissue level they protected the jejunal tissue and liver parenchyma under deoxynivalenol challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Horky
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Hana Abigail Gruberova
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Tereza Aulichova
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Svetlana Malyugina
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Petr Slama
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Morphology, Physiology and Genetics, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Ales Pavlik
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Morphology, Physiology and Genetics, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Jiri Skladanka
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Misa Skoric
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathological Morphology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
| | - Sylvie Skalickova
- Faculty of AgriSciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Production, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic, European Union
- * E-mail:
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Biomarkers of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its modified form DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G) in humans. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Dilute-and-Shoot HPLC-UV Method for Determination of Urinary Creatinine as a Normalization Tool in Mycotoxin Biomonitoring in Pigs. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25102445. [PMID: 32456313 PMCID: PMC7288144 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25102445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A simple, rapid, and accurate HPLC-UV method was developed for the determination of creatinine in pig urine. Usually, it is determined in urine in biomonitoring of xenobiotics to correct for variations in dilutions of urine samples. The colorimetric method (based on Jaffe reaction), which was mainly used for this purpose in mycotoxin biomonitoring, is not a reliable approach for pig urine. Therefore, a novel and accurate HPLC method for creatinine determination was developed. The sample preparation was based on the dilute and shoot approach. An HPLC separation was performed with a porous graphitic carbon column with an aqueous mobile phase to achieve satisfactory retention time for creatinine. The method has been successfully validated, applied for the determination of creatinine in pig urine, and compared with other methods commonly used for that purpose—a colorimetric method based on Jaffe reaction and commercial ELISA test. The developed HPLC method shows the highest precision and accuracy for pig urine samples. Finally, the method was applied as a normalization tool in LC-MS/MS mycotoxin biomarkers analysis. The standardization to a constant creatinine level (0.5 mg/mL) enables similar matrix effects for eleven mycotoxin biomarkers for pig urine samples with different creatinine levels.
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Matraszek-Zuchowska I, Wozniak B, Posyniak A. Resorcylic acid lactones in urine samples of slaughtered animals resulting from potential feed contamination with zearalenone. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2019; 12:105-115. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2019.1566933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Wozniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Andrzej Posyniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
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Lorenz N, Dänicke S, Edler L, Gottschalk C, Lassek E, Marko D, Rychlik M, Mally A. A critical evaluation of health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins with a special focus on zearalenone. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:27-46. [PMID: 30209771 PMCID: PMC6331505 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0328-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive definition introducing the term "modified mycotoxins" to encompass all possible forms in which mycotoxins and their modifications can occur was recently proposed and has rapidly gained wide acceptance within the scientific community. It is becoming increasingly evident that exposure to such modified mycotoxins due to their presence in food and feed has the potential to pose a substantial additional risk to human and animal health. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a well-characterized Fusarium toxin. Considering the diversity of modified forms of ZEN occurring in food and feed, the toxicologically relevant endocrine activity of many of these metabolites, and the fact that modified forms add to a dietary exposure which approaches the tolerable daily intake by free ZEN alone, modified forms of ZEN present an ideal case study for critical evaluation of modified mycotoxins in food safety. Following a summary of recent scientific opinions of EFSA dealing with health risk assessment of ZEN alone or in combination with its modified forms, uncertainties and data gaps are highlighted. Issues essential for evaluation and prioritization of modified mycotoxins in health risk assessment are identified and discussed, including opportunities to improve exposure assessment using biomonitoring data. Further issues such as future consideration of combinatory effects of the parent toxin with its modified forms and also other compounds co-occurring in food and feed are addressed. With a particular focus on ZEN, the most pressing challenges associated with health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins are identified and recommendations for further research to fill data gaps and reduce uncertainties are made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Lorenz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lutz Edler
- Division of Biostatistics, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christoph Gottschalk
- Chair of Food Safety, Veterinary Faculty, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Eva Lassek
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Luitpoldstr. 1, 97082, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Alte Akademie 10, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Angela Mally
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
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8
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Valgaeren B, Théron L, Croubels S, Devreese M, De Baere S, Van Pamel E, Daeseleire E, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Vidal A, Di Mavungu JD, Fruhmann P, Adam G, Callebaut A, Bayrou C, Frisée V, Rao AS, Knapp E, Sartelet A, Pardon B, Deprez P, Antonissen G. The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics. Arch Toxicol 2018; 93:293-310. [PMID: 30535711 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2368-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A clinical case in Belgium demonstrated that feeding a feed concentrate containing considerable levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, 1.13 mg/kg feed) induced severe liver failure in 2- to 3-month-old beef calves. Symptoms disappeared by replacing the highly contaminated corn and by stimulating ruminal development via roughage administration. A multi-mycotoxin contamination was demonstrated in feed samples collected at 15 different veal farms in Belgium. DON was most prevalent, contaminating 80% of the roughage samples (mixed straw and maize silage; average concentration in positives: 637 ± 621 µg/kg, max. 1818 µg/kg), and all feed concentrate samples (411 ± 156 µg/kg, max. 693 µg/kg). In order to evaluate the impact of roughage provision and its associated ruminal development on the gastro-intestinal absorption and biodegradation of DON and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-ADON) in calves, a toxicokinetic study was performed with two ruminating and two non-ruminating male calves. Animals received in succession a bolus of DON (120 µg/kg bodyweight (BW)), 15-ADON (50 µg/kg BW), and 3-ADON (25 µg/kg) by intravenous (IV) injection or per os (PO) in a cross-over design. The absolute oral bioavailability of DON was much higher in non-ruminating calves (50.7 ± 33.0%) compared to ruminating calves (4.1 ± 4.5%). Immediately following exposure, 3- and 15-ADON were hydrolysed to DON in ruminating calves. DON and its acetylated metabolites were mainly metabolized to DON-3-glucuronide, however, also small amounts of DON-15-glucuronide were detected in urine. DON degradation to deepoxy-DON (DOM-1) was only observed to a relevant extent in ruminating calves. Consequently, toxicity of DON in calves is closely related to roughage provision and the associated stage of ruminal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bonnie Valgaeren
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.,Faculty of Science and Technology, University College Ghent, Melle, Belgium
| | - Léonard Théron
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Els Van Pamel
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit-Food Safety, Melle, Belgium
| | - Els Daeseleire
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit-Food Safety, Melle, Belgium
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arnau Vidal
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - José Diana Di Mavungu
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Philipp Fruhmann
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Tulln, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Tulln, Austria
| | - Alfons Callebaut
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre, CODA-CERVA, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Calixte Bayrou
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Vincent Frisée
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Anne-Sophie Rao
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Emilie Knapp
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Arnaud Sartelet
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Bart Pardon
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Piet Deprez
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium. .,Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Li F, Wang J, Huang L, Chen H, Wang C. Effects of Adding Clostridium sp. WJ06 on Intestinal Morphology and Microbial Diversity of Growing Pigs Fed with Natural Deoxynivalenol Contaminated Wheat. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9120383. [PMID: 29186895 PMCID: PMC5744103 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9120383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is commonly detected in cereals, and is a threat to human and animal health. The effects of microbiological detoxification are now being widely studied. A total of 24 pigs (over four months) were randomly divided into three treatments. Treatment A was fed with a basal diet as the control group. Treatment B was fed with naturally DON-contaminated wheat as a negative control group. Treatment C was fed with a contaminated diet that also had Clostridium sp. WJ06, which was used as a detoxicant. Growth performance, relative organ weight, intestinal morphology, and the intestinal flora of bacteria and fungi were examined. The results showed that after consuming a DON-contaminated diet, the growth performance of the pigs decreased significantly (p < 0.05), the relative organ weight of the liver and kidney increased significantly (p < 0.05), and the integrity of the intestinal barrier was also impaired, though the toxic effects of the contaminated diets on growing pigs were relieved after adding Clostridium sp. WJ06. The data from MiSeq sequencing of the 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene and internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) gene suggested that the abundance of intestinal flora was significantly different across the three treatments. In conclusion, the application of Clostridium sp. WJ06 can reduce the toxic effects of DON and adjust the intestinal microecosystem of growing pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- FuChang Li
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Taian City 271018, China.
| | - JinQuan Wang
- Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - LiBo Huang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Taian City 271018, China.
| | - HongJu Chen
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Taian City 271018, China.
| | - ChunYang Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, 61 Daizong Street, Taian City 271018, China.
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10
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, De Saeger S, Eriksen GS, Farmer P, Fremy JM, Gong YY, Meyer K, Naegeli H, Parent-Massin D, Rietjens I, van Egmond H, Altieri A, Eskola M, Gergelova P, Ramos Bordajandi L, Benkova B, Dörr B, Gkrillas A, Gustavsson N, van Manen M, Edler L. Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04718. [PMID: 32625635 PMCID: PMC7010102 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.
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11
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Glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol (DON) by different animal species: identification of iso-DON glucuronides and iso-deepoxy-DON glucuronides as novel DON metabolites in pigs, rats, mice, and cows. Arch Toxicol 2017. [PMID: 28638985 PMCID: PMC5719127 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-2012-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a frequent contaminant of cereal-based food and feed. Mammals metabolize DON by conjugation to glucuronic acid (GlcAc), the extent and regioselectivity of which is species-dependent. So far, only DON-3-glucuronide (DON-3-GlcAc) and DON-15-GlcAc have been unequivocally identified as mammalian DON glucuronides, and DON-7-GlcAc has been proposed as further DON metabolite. In the present work, qualitative HPLC–MS/MS analysis of urine samples of animals treated with DON (rats: 2 mg/kg bw, single bolus, gavage; mice: 1 mg/kg bw, single i.p. injection; pigs: 74 µg/kg bw, single bolus, gavage; cows: 5.2 mg DON/kg dry mass, oral for 13 weeks) revealed additional DON and deepoxy-DON (DOM) glucuronides. To elucidate their structures, DON and DOM were incubated with human (HLM) and rat liver microsomes (RLM). Besides the expected DON/DOM-3- and 15-GlcAc, minor amounts of four DON- and four DOM glucuronides were formed. Isolation and enzymatic hydrolysis of four of these compounds yielded iso-DON and iso-DOM, the identities of which were eventually confirmed by NMR. Incubation of iso-DON and iso-DOM with RLM and HLM yielded two main glucuronides for each parent compound, which were isolated and identified as iso-DON/DOM-3-GlcAc and iso-DON/DOM-8-GlcAc by NMR. Iso-DON-3-GlcAc, most likely misidentified as DON-7-GlcAc in the literature, proved to be a major DON metabolite in rats and a minor metabolite in pigs. In addition, iso-DON-8-GlcAc turned out to be one of the major DON metabolites in mice. DOM-3-GlcAc was the dominant DON metabolite in urine of cows and an important DON metabolite in rat urine. Iso-DOM-3-GlcAc was detected in urine of DON-treated rats and cows. Finally, DON-8,15-hemiketal-8-glucuronide, a previously described by-product of DON-3-GlcAc production by RLM, was identified in urine of DON-exposed mice and rats. The discovery of several novel DON-derived glucuronides in animal urine requires adaptation of the currently used methods for DON-biomarker analysis.
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Bannert E, Tesch T, Kluess J, Valenta H, Frahm J, Kersten S, Kahlert S, Renner L, Rothkötter HJ, Dänicke S. Plasma kinetics and matrix residues of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) are altered in endotoxaemic pigs independent of LPS entry site. Mycotoxin Res 2017; 33:183-195. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-017-0276-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Dänicke S, Winkler J, Meyer U, Frahm J, Kersten S. Haematological, clinical-chemical and immunological consequences of feeding Fusarium toxin contaminated diets to early lactating dairy cows. Mycotoxin Res 2016; 33:1-13. [PMID: 27830510 PMCID: PMC5239804 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-016-0258-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Dairy cows experience a negative energy balance at the onset of lactation which results in an enhanced vulnerability for infectious diseases. Any dietary imbalances, including Fusarium toxin contamination, might therefore exacerbate this situation. The aim of the present investigations was to study the effects of increasing dietary concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) on clinical-chemical, haematological and immunological traits up to week 14 of lactation. For this purpose, ten cows each were assigned to a control group (CON; 0.02 mg ZEN and 0.06 mg DON per kg diet at 88 % DM), toxin level 1 (TOX-1; 0.29 mg ZEN and 2.31 mg DON per kg diet at 88 % DM) and toxin level 2 (TOX-2; 0.58 mg ZEN and 4.61 mg DON per kg diet at 88 % DM). The measured values of most parameters were affected by parturition but only a few of them were further modified by dietary treatment. For example, the time-dependent decrease in haemoglobin concentration, haematocrit and erythrocyte counts occurred at a significantly higher level for group TOX-2 while a serum glucose increase was missing in this group. Proportions of CD4+ and CD8+ cells decreased significantly over time solely in group TOX-2 while the CD4+/CD8+ ratio remained uninfluenced. Ability of granulocytes to mount an oxidative burst tended to increase at the end of the study in groups TOX-1 and TOX-2 while the opposite was observed in group CON. The results of this time-limited study indicate that feeding of Fusarium-toxin contaminated diets in early lactation affects health related parameters without compromising milking performance. However, long-term consequences of the observed effects on health need to be addressed in further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health (FLI), Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Janine Winkler
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health (FLI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ulrich Meyer
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health (FLI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jana Frahm
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health (FLI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Susanne Kersten
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health (FLI), Braunschweig, Germany
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Fusarium toxin-contaminated maize in diets of growing bulls: effects on performance, slaughtering characteristics, and transfer into physiological liquids. Mycotoxin Res 2016; 32:127-35. [PMID: 27083899 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-016-0247-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The present feeding study was carried out to examine the effects of Fusarium toxin-contaminated diets on performance and slaughtering characteristics and on the transfer of the Fusarium toxins zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON) and their metabolites into physiological matrices. A total of 61 bulls (483 ± 46 kg) were fed with graded proportions of Fusarium toxin-contaminated feed over a period of 10 weeks. The total mixed rations (TMR) consisted of 47 % grass silage, 20 % press pulp silage, and 33 % concentrate on dry matter (DM) basis. Increasing toxin concentrations were achieved by the exchange of control maize with Fusarium toxin-contaminated maize in the concentrates. Thus, dietary toxin concentrations between 0.08 and 0.69 mg ZEN and 0.36 and 8.31 mg DON per kg DM were covered by the four feeding groups. Based on increasing DM intake with increasing mycotoxin contaminations of the diet, the live weight gain and energy intake differed significantly between the groups. No effects were observed on slaughtering characteristics and organ weights. ZEN, α-zeralenol, β-zeralenol (β-ZEL), zeralanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, DON, and de-deepoxy-DON (de-DON) were simultaneously determined in urine, plasma, and liquor whereby quantifiable concentrations of ZEN, β-ZEL, DON, and de-DON were found in urine, of DON and de-DON in plasma, and solely of de-DON in liquor. Based on overall results it can be concluded that current EU-guidance values for critical concentrations of DON and ZEN can be regarded as safe levels also for growing bulls. Urine and blood toxin residue levels can be used to assess exposure of bulls.
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Schären M, Jostmeier S, Ruesink S, Hüther L, Frahm J, Bulang M, Meyer U, Rehage J, Isselstein J, Breves G, Dänicke S. The effects of a ration change from a total mixed ration to pasture on health and production of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:1183-1200. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Metabolism of deoxynivalenol and deepoxy-deoxynivalenol in broiler chickens, pullets, roosters and turkeys. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:4706-29. [PMID: 26569307 PMCID: PMC4663529 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7114706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, deoxynivalenol-3-sulfate (DON-3-sulfate) was proposed as a major DON metabolite in poultry. In the present work, the first LC-MS/MS based method for determination of DON-3-sulfate, deepoxy-DON-3-sulfate (DOM-3-sulfate), DON, DOM, DON sulfonates 1, 2, 3, and DOM sulfonate 2 in excreta samples of chickens and turkeys was developed and validated. To this end, DOM-3-sulfate was chemically synthesized and characterized by NMR and LC-HR-MS/MS measurements. Application of the method to excreta and chyme samples of four feeding trials with turkeys, chickens, pullets, and roosters confirmed DON-3-sulfate as the major DON metabolite in all poultry species studied. Analogously to DON-3-sulfate, DOM-3-sulfate was formed after oral administration of DOM both in turkeys and in chickens. In addition, pullets and roosters metabolized DON into DOM-3-sulfate. In vitro transcription/translation assays revealed DOM-3-sulfate to be 2000 times less toxic on the ribosome than DON. Biological recoveries of DON and DOM orally administered to broiler chickens, turkeys, and pullets were 74%–106% (chickens), 51%–72% (roosters), and 131%–151% (pullets). In pullets, DON-3-sulfate concentrations increased from jejunum chyme samples to excreta samples by a factor of 60. This result, put into context with earlier studies, indicates fast and efficient absorption of DON between crop and jejunum, conversion to DON-3-sulfate in intestinal mucosa, liver, and possibly kidney, and rapid elimination into excreta via bile and urine.
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Invited review: Diagnosis of zearalenone (ZEN) exposure of farm animals and transfer of its residues into edible tissues (carry over). Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 84:225-49. [PMID: 26277628 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the review was to evaluate the opportunities for diagnosing the zearalenone (ZEN) exposure and intoxication of farm animals by analyzing biological specimens for ZEN residue levels. Metabolism is discussed to be important when evaluating species-specific consequences for the overall toxicity of ZEN. Besides these toxicological facts, analytics of ZEN residues in various animal-derived matrices requires sensitive, matrix-adapted multi-methods with low limits of quantification, which is more challenging than the ZEN analysis in feed. Based on dose-response experiments with farm animals, the principle usability of various specimens as bio-indicators for ZEN exposure is discussed with regard to individual variation and practicability for the veterinary practitioner. ZEN residue analysis in biological samples does not only enable evaluation of ZEN exposure but also allows the risk for the consumer arising from contaminated foodstuffs of animal origin to be assessed. It was compiled from literature that the tolerable daily intake of 0.25 μg ZEN/kg body weight and day is exploited to approximately 8%, when a daily basket of animal foodstuffs and associated carry over factors are assumed at reported ZEN contamination levels of complete feed.
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Winkler J, Kersten S, Meyer U, Stinshoff H, Locher L, Rehage J, Wrenzycki C, Engelhardt UH, Dänicke S. Diagnostic opportunities for evaluation of the exposure of dairy cows to the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN): reliability of blood plasma, bile and follicular fluid as indicators. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2014; 99:847-55. [DOI: 10.1111/jpn.12285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Winkler
- Institute of Animal Nutrition; Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI); Federal Research Institute for Animal Health; Braunschweig Germany
| | - S. Kersten
- Institute of Animal Nutrition; Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI); Federal Research Institute for Animal Health; Braunschweig Germany
| | - U. Meyer
- Institute of Animal Nutrition; Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI); Federal Research Institute for Animal Health; Braunschweig Germany
| | - H. Stinshoff
- Clinic for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Andrology of Large and Small Animals; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Justus-Liebig-University Giessen; Germany
| | - L. Locher
- Clinic for Ruminants; Ludwig-Maximilians-University; Munich Germany
| | - J. Rehage
- Clinic for Cattle; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Germany
| | - C. Wrenzycki
- Clinic for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Andrology of Large and Small Animals; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Justus-Liebig-University Giessen; Germany
| | - U. H. Engelhardt
- Faculty of Life Sciences; Institute of Food Chemistry; Technische Universität Braunschweig; Germany
| | - S. Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition; Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI); Federal Research Institute for Animal Health; Braunschweig Germany
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Dänicke S, Keese C, Meyer U, Starke A, Kinoshita A, Rehage J. Zearalenone (ZEN) metabolism and residue concentrations in physiological specimens of dairy cows exposed long-term to ZEN-contaminated diets differing in concentrate feed proportions. Arch Anim Nutr 2014; 68:492-506. [PMID: 25348458 DOI: 10.1080/1745039x.2014.973236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A long-term feeding experiment with dairy cows was performed to investigate the effects of feeding a Fusarium toxin contaminated (FUS) and a background-contaminated control (CON) ration with a mean concentrate feed proportion of 50% during the first 11 weeks after parturition (Groups FUS-50, CON-50, Period 1), and with concentrate feed proportions of 30% or 60% during the remaining 17 weeks (Groups CON-30, CON-60, FUS-30 and FUS-60, Period 2), on zearalenone (ZEN) residue levels in blood serum, milk, urine and bile. ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), zearalanone (ZAL), α-zearalanol (α-ZAL) and β-zearalanol (β-ZAL) were determined by HPLC with fluorescence detection. The ZEN concentrations of the rations fed to Groups CON-50, FUS-50 (Period 1), CON-30, CON-60, FUS-30 and FUS-60 (Period 2) amounted to 53.1, 112.7, 35.0, 24.4, 73.8 and 72.5 µg/kg dry matter, respectively. The concentrations of ZEN, α-ZEL, β-ZEL, ZAN, α-ZAL and β-ZAL in serum, urine and milk were lower than 1, 1, 4, 100, 50 and 200 ng/g, respectively, while ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL were detected in bile. Their levels changed with oral ZEN exposure in the course of the experiment and in a similar direction with concentrate feed proportion (Period 2 only). Thus the proportions of the individual β-ZEL, α-ZEL and ZEN concentrations of their sum varied only in narrow ranges of 68-76%, 6-13% and 12-20%, respectively. Interestingly, the bile concentrations of β-ZEL, α-ZEL and ZEN of Groups CON-60 and FUS-60 amounted to only approximately 50%, 45% and 62%, respectively, of those of Groups CON-30 and FUS-30 despite a similar or even lower ZEN exposure. The results indicate that conversion of ZEN to its detectable metabolites was not changed by different dietary concentrate feed proportions while their absolute levels were decreased. These findings might suggest concentrate feed proportion-dependent and rumen fermentation-mediated alterations in ZEN/metabolite degradation, and/or liver associated alterations in bile formation and turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Dänicke
- a Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut , Braunschweig , Germany
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