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Akindele AJ, Sowemimo A, Agunbiade FO, Sofidiya MO, Awodele O, Ade-Ademilua O, Orabueze I, Ishola IO, Ayolabi CI, Salu OB, Akinleye MO, Oreagba IA. Bioprospecting for Anti-COVID-19 Interventions From African Medicinal Plants: A Review. Nat Prod Commun 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x221096968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that emanated from Wuhan in China in 2019 has become a global concern. The current situation warrants ethnomedicinal drug discovery and development for delivery of phytomedicines with potential for the treatment of COVID-19. The aim of this review is to provide a detailed evaluation of available information on plant species used in African traditional medicines with antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and COVID-19 symptoms relieving effects. Literature from scientific databases such as Scopus, PubMed, Google scholar, African Journals OnLine (AJOL), Science Direct, and Web of Science were used for this review. A total of 35 of the 38 reviewed plants demonstrated a wide range of antiviral activities. Bryophyllum pinnatum, Aframomum melegueta, Garcinia kola, Sphenocentrum jollyanum, Adansonia digitata, Sutherlandia frutescens, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Moringa oleifera, and Nigella sativa possess a combination of antiviral, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and COVID-19 symptoms relieving activities. Nine, 13, and 10 of the plants representing 23.7%, 34.2%, and 26.3% of the plants studied had antiviral activity with 3 other activities, antiviral activity with 2 other activities, and antiviral with one pharmacological activity alone, respectively. The plants studied were reported to be relatively safe at the subchronic toxicity level, except for 2. The study provides baseline information on the pharmacological activities, toxicity, and chemical components of 9 African medicinal plants with antiviral, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and symptoms relieving activities, thereby making the plants candidates for further investigation for effectiveness against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abidemi J. Akindele
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics & Toxicology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Abimbola Sowemimo
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Foluso O. Agunbiade
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Margaret O. Sofidiya
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Olufunsho Awodele
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics & Toxicology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Omobolanle Ade-Ademilua
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Ifeoma Orabueze
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Ismail O. Ishola
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics & Toxicology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Christianah I. Ayolabi
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Olumuyiwa B. Salu
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Parasitology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Moshood O. Akinleye
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Ibrahim A. Oreagba
- African Center of Excellence for Drug Research, Herbal Medicine Development and Regulatory Science (ACEDHARS), University of Lagos (UNILAG), Lagos, Nigeria
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics & Toxicology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
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Antimalarial Activity of Hydromethanolic Crude Extract and Chloroform Fraction of Brucea antidysenterica Leaves in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 2021:2089114. [PMID: 34691207 PMCID: PMC8528577 DOI: 10.1155/2021/2089114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Different parts of Brucea antidysenterica are used in traditional and alternative medicine in Ethiopia for the treatment of different health problems including malaria and have good in vitro antimalarial activity. However, no in vivo study was conducted to substantiate the claim. Our study planned to determine the antimalarial effect of B. antidysenterica extract. Methods Swiss albino mice (6–8 weeks old, 20–28 g) were inoculated with Plasmodium berghei. Different doses of both hydromethanolic extract and chloroform fraction were orally given at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg/day. Results The parasitemia suppression percent of hydromethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction in chemosuppressive tests ranged between 33.48 and 75.93% and 38.32 and 76.64%, respectively. The hydromethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction exhibited the curative effect of 46.75–70.91% and 50.30–80.06% parasitemia suppression, respectively (p < 0.001), compared with negative control. Conclusion From our study, it is concluded that the hydromethanolic crude extract and chloroform fraction of B. antidysenterica leaves showed promising antiplasmodial effects against Plasmodium berghei. This upholds the folkloric use of B. antidysenterica leaves and the thought of as a possible source to develop new antimalarial agents.
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Tajbakhsh E, Kwenti TE, Kheyri P, Nezaratizade S, Lindsay DS, Khamesipour F. Antiplasmodial, antimalarial activities and toxicity of African medicinal plants: a systematic review of literature. Malar J 2021; 20:349. [PMID: 34433465 PMCID: PMC8390284 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-021-03866-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malaria still constitutes a major public health menace, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. Close to half a million people mainly children in Africa, die every year from the disease. With the rising resistance to frontline drugs (artemisinin-based combinations), there is a need to accelerate the discovery and development of newer anti-malarial drugs. A systematic review was conducted to identify the African medicinal plants with significant antiplasmodial and/or anti-malarial activity, toxicity, as wells as assessing the variation in their activity between study designs (in vitro and in vivo). METHODS Key health-related databases including Google Scholar, PubMed, PubMed Central, and Science Direct were searched for relevant literature on the antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activities of African medicinal plants. RESULTS In total, 200 research articles were identified, a majority of which were studies conducted in Nigeria. The selected research articles constituted 722 independent experiments evaluating 502 plant species. Of the 722 studies, 81.9%, 12.4%, and 5.5% were in vitro, in vivo, and combined in vitro and in vivo, respectively. The most frequently investigated plant species were Azadirachta indica, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Picrilima nitida, and Nauclea latifolia meanwhile Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Meliaceae, and Lamiaceae were the most frequently investigated plant families. Overall, 248 (34.3%), 241 (33.4%), and 233 (32.3%) of the studies reported very good, good, and moderate activity, respectively. Alchornea cordifolia, Flueggea virosa, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, and Maytenus senegalensis gave consistently very good activity across the different studies. In all, only 31 (4.3%) of studies involved pure compounds and these had significantly (p = 0.044) higher antiplasmodial activity relative to crude extracts. Out of the 198 plant species tested for toxicity, 52 (26.3%) demonstrated some degree of toxicity, with toxicity most frequently reported with Azadirachta indica and Vernonia amygdalina. These species were equally the most frequently inactive plants reported. The leaves were the most frequently reported toxic part of plants used. Furthermore, toxicity was observed to decrease with increasing antiplasmodial activity. CONCLUSIONS Although there are many indigenous plants with considerable antiplasmodial and anti-malarial activity, the progress in the development of new anti-malarial drugs from African medicinal plants is still slothful, with only one clinical trial with Cochlospermum planchonii (Bixaceae) conducted to date. There is, therefore, the need to scale up anti-malarial drug discovery in the African region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elahe Tajbakhsh
- Department of Microbiology, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Regional Hospital Buea, Buea, Cameroon
- Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Parya Kheyri
- Young Researchers and Elite Club, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Saeed Nezaratizade
- Young Researchers and Elite Club, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - David S Lindsay
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for One Health Research, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, 1410 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, VA, 24061-0342, USA
| | - Faham Khamesipour
- Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran.
- Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Djouwoug CN, Gounoue RK, Ngueguim FT, NankapTsakem JM, Gouni CD, Kandeda AC, Ngouela S, Lenta BN, Sewald N, Fekam FB, Dimo T. In vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activity of hydroethanolic bark extract of Bridelia atroviridis müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) and lc-ms-based phytochemical analysis. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 266:113424. [PMID: 33010404 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Malaria is a life-threatening health problem worldwide and treatment remains a major challenge. Natural products from medicinal plants are credible sources for better anti-malarial drugs. AIM OF THE STUDY This study aimed at assessing the in vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activities of the hydroethanolic extract of Bridelia atroviridis bark. MATERIALS AND METHODS The phytochemical characterization of Bridelia atroviridis extract was carried out by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). The cytotoxicity test on Vero cells was carried out using the resazurin-based assay while the in vitro antiplasmodial activity was determined on Plasmodium falciparum (Dd2 strain, chloroquine resistant) using the SYBR green I-based fluorescence assay. The in vivo assay was performed on Plasmodium berghei-infected rats daily treated for 5 days with distilled water (10 mL/kg) for malaria control, 25 mg/kg of chloroquine sulfate for positive control and 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg of B. atroviridis extract for the three test groups. Parasitaemia was daily monitored using 10% giemsa-staining thin blood smears. At the end of the treatment, animals were sacrificed, blood was collected for hematological and biochemical analysis while organs were removed for biochemical and histopathological analyses. RESULTS The HPLC-MS analysis data of B. atroviridis revealed the presence of bridelionoside D, isomyricitrin, corilagin, myricetin and 5 others compounds not yet identified. Bridelia atroviridis exhibited good in vitro antiplasmodial activity with the IC50 evaluated at 8.08 μg/mL and low cytotoxicity with the median cytotoxic concentration (CC50) higher than 100 μg/mL. B. atroviridis extract significantly reduced the parasitemia (p < 0.05) with an effective dose-50 (ED-50) of 89 mg/kg. B. atroviridis also prevented anemia, leukocytosis and liver and kidneys impairment by decrease of transaminases, ALP, creatinine, uric acid, and triglycerides concentrations. As well, B. atroviridis extract decreased some pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) levels and significantly improved the anti-inflammatory status (P < 0.01) of infected animals marked by a decrease of IL-10 concentration. These results were further confirmed by the improved of antioxidant status and the quasi-normal microarchitecture of the liver, kidneys and spleen in test groups. Overall, the hydroethanolic bark extract of Bridelia atroviridis demonstrated antimalarial property and justified its use in traditional medicine to manage malaria disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Silvere Ngouela
- Laboratory of Natural Substances, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon
| | - Bruno Ndjakou Lenta
- Laboratory of Natural Substances, High Teaching Training College, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
| | - Nobert Sewald
- Laboratory of Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Fabrice Boyom Fekam
- Laboratory for Phytobiochemistry and Medicinal Plants Studies, Antimicrobial and Biocontrol Agents Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
| | - Théophile Dimo
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon.
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Neag MA, Mocan A, Echeverría J, Pop RM, Bocsan CI, Crişan G, Buzoianu AD. Berberine: Botanical Occurrence, Traditional Uses, Extraction Methods, and Relevance in Cardiovascular, Metabolic, Hepatic, and Renal Disorders. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:557. [PMID: 30186157 PMCID: PMC6111450 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Berberine-containing plants have been traditionally used in different parts of the world for the treatment of inflammatory disorders, skin diseases, wound healing, reducing fevers, affections of eyes, treatment of tumors, digestive and respiratory diseases, and microbial pathologies. The physico-chemical properties of berberine contribute to the high diversity of extraction and detection methods. Considering its particularities this review describes various methods mentioned in the literature so far with reference to the most important factors influencing berberine extraction. Further, the common separation and detection methods like thin layer chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry are discussed in order to give a complex overview of the existing methods. Additionally, many clinical and experimental studies suggest that berberine has several pharmacological properties, such as immunomodulatory, antioxidative, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and renoprotective effects. This review summarizes the main information about botanical occurrence, traditional uses, extraction methods, and pharmacological effects of berberine and berberine-containing plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. Neag
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Andrei Mocan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Javier Echeverría
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile
| | - Raluca M. Pop
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Corina I. Bocsan
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Gianina Crişan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Anca D. Buzoianu
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, “Iuliu Hatieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Christian AG, Thecla EC, Dick EA, Chile AE, Chimsorom CK, Ckukwu ND, Nwobodo NN. In vivo antiplasmodial activity of Bombax buonopozense root bark aqueous extract in mice infected by Plasmodium berghei. J TRADIT CHIN MED 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/s0254-6272(17)30148-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Antimalarial and cytotoxic properties of Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss and Turraea vogelii Hook F. Ex. Benth. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:1667-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-4906-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Adebajo AC, Famuyiwa FG, Aliyu FA. Properties for sourcing Nigerian larvicidal plants. Molecules 2014; 19:8363-72. [PMID: 24950440 PMCID: PMC6271722 DOI: 10.3390/molecules19068363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is the primary vector of chikungunya, yellow and dengue fevers. Dengue fever is the major cause of child morbidity and hospitalisation in some Asian and African countries, while yellow fever is prevalent in Nigeria. The development of resistance to the available insecticides has necessitated the continued search for safer ones from plants. Eighteen plant extracts with ethnomedical claims of or demonstrated febrifuge, antimalarial, insecticidal and insect repellent biological activities were tested for activity against the fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti. About 61% of the eighteen extracts demonstrated high to moderate larvicidal activity. Extracts of Piper nigrum and Abrus precatorius seeds were the most active and the larvicidal constituent(s) of the latter should be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeleke Clement Adebajo
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220282, Osun State, Nigeria.
| | - Funmilayo Gladys Famuyiwa
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220282, Osun State, Nigeria.
| | - Fatima Abosede Aliyu
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 220282, Osun State, Nigeria.
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Olasehinde GI, Ojurongbe O, Adeyeba AO, Fagade OE, Valecha N, Ayanda IO, Ajayi AA, Egwari LO. In vitro studies on the sensitivity pattern of Plasmodium falciparum to anti-malarial drugs and local herbal extracts. Malar J 2014; 13:63. [PMID: 24555525 PMCID: PMC3996087 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-13-63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The resistance of human malaria parasites to anti-malarial compounds has become considerable concern, particularly in view of the shortage of novel classes of anti-malarial drugs. One way to prevent resistance is by using new compounds that are not based on existing synthetic antimicrobial agents. RESULTS Sensitivity of 100 Plasmodium falciparum isolates to chloroquine, quinine, amodiaquine, mefloquine, sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine, artemisinin, Momordica charantia ('Ejirin') Diospyros monbuttensis ('Egun eja') and Morinda lucida ('Oruwo') was determined using the in vitro microtest (Mark III) technique to determine the IC50 of the drugs. All the isolates tested were sensitive to quinine, mefloquine and artesunate. Fifty-one percent of the isolates were resistant to chloroquine, 13% to amodiaquine and 5% to sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine. Highest resistance to chloroquine (68.9%) was recorded among isolates from Yewa zone while highest resistance to amodiaquine (30%) was observed in Ijebu zone. Highest resistance to sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine was recorded in Yewa and Egba zones, respectively. A positive correlation was observed between the responses to artemisinin and mefloquine (P<0.05), artemisinin and quinine (P<0.05) and quinine and mefloquine (P<0.05). A negative correlation was observed between the responses to chloroquine and mefloquine (P>0.05). Highest anti-plasmodial activity was obtained with the ethanolic extract of D. monbuttensis (IC50 = 3.2 nM) while the lowest was obtained from M. lucida (IC50 = 25 nM). CONCLUSIONS Natural products isolated from plants used in traditional medicine, which have potent anti-plasmodial action in vitro, represent potential sources of new anti-malarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace I Olasehinde
- Department of Biological Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Olusola Ojurongbe
- Department of Medical Parasitology, LAUTECH Teaching Hospital, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria
| | - Adegboyega O Adeyeba
- Department of Medical Parasitology, LAUTECH Teaching Hospital, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria
| | - Obasola E Fagade
- Department of Botany, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Neena Valecha
- National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Isaac O Ayanda
- Department of Biological Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Adesola A Ajayi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Louis O Egwari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
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