Incorporation of (n-3) fatty acids in foods: challenges and opportunities

Polyunsaturated fatty acids-induced ferroptosis suppresses pancreatic cancer growth

Despite recent advances in science and medical technology, pancreatic cancer remains associated with high mortality rates due to aggressive growth and no early clinical sign as well as the unique resistance to anti-cancer chemotherapy. Current numerous investigations have suggested that ferroptosis, which is a programed cell death driven by lipid oxidation, is an attractive therapeutic in different tumor types including pancreatic cancer. Here, we first demonstrated that linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (αLA) induced cell death with necroptotic morphological change in MIA-Paca2 and Suit 2 cell lines. LA and αLA increased lipid peroxidation and phosphorylation of RIP3 and MLKL in pancreatic cancers, which were negated by ferroptosis inhibitor, ferrostatin-1, restoring back to BSA control levels. Similarly, intraperitoneal administration of LA and αLA suppresses the growth of subcutaneously transplanted Suit-2 cells and ameliorated the decreased survival rate of tumor bearing mice, while co-administration of ferrostatin-1 with LA and αLA negated the anti-cancer effect. We also demonstrated that LA and αLA partially showed ferroptotic effects on the gemcitabine-resistant-PK cells, although its effect was exerted late compared to treatment on normal-PK cells. In addition, the trial to validate the importance of double bonds in PUFAs in ferroptosis revealed that AA and EPA had a marked effect of ferroptosis on pancreatic cancer cells, but DHA showed mild suppression of cancer proliferation. Furthermore, treatment in other tumor cell lines revealed different sensitivity of PUFA-induced ferroptosis; e.g., EPA induced a ferroptotic effect on colorectal adenocarcinoma, but LA or αLA did not. Collectively, these data suggest that PUFAs can have a potential to exert an anti-cancer effect via ferroptosis in both normal and gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic cancer.

New Insights into Prospective Health Potential of ω-3 PUFAs

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid are the two essential long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) promoting human health which are obtained from diet or supplementation. The eicosanoids derived from ω-6 and ω-3 PUFAs have opposite characteristics of pro- and anti-inflammatory activities. The proinflammatory effects of ω-6 PUFAs are behind the pathology of the adverse health conditions of PUFA metabolism like cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and inflammatory diseases. A balanced ω-6 to ω-3 ratio of 1-4:1 is critical to prevent the associated disorders. But due to modern agricultural practices, there is a disastrous shift in this ratio to 10-20:1. This review primarily aims to discuss the myriad health potentials of ω-3 PUFAs uncovered through recent research. It further manifests the importance of maintaining a balanced ω-6 to ω-3 PUFA ratio.

RECENT FINDINGS

ω-3 PUFAs exhibit protective effects against diabetes mellitus-associated complications including diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, and proteinuria. COVID-19 is also not an exception to the health benefits of ω-3 PUFAs. Supplementation of ω-3 PUFAs improved the respiratory and clinical symptoms in COVID-19 patients. ω-3 PUFAs exhibit a variety of health benefits including anti-inflammatory property and antimicrobial property and are effective in protecting against various health conditions like atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, COVID-19, and neurological disorders. In the present review, various health potentials of ω-3 PUFAs are extensively reviewed and summarized. Further, the importance of a balanced ω-6 to ω-3 PUFA ratio has been emphasized besides stating the diverse sources of ω-3 PUFA.

The challenge of breeding for reduced off-flavor in faba bean ingredients

The growing interest in plant protein sources, such as pulses, is driven by the necessity for sustainable food production and climate change mitigation strategies. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a promising protein crop for temperate climates, owing to its remarkable yield potential (up to 8 tonnes ha-1 in favourable growing conditions) and high protein content (~29% dry matter basis). Nevertheless, the adoption of faba bean protein in plant-based products that aim to resemble animal-derived counterparts is hindered by its distinctive taste and aroma, regarded as "off-flavors". In this review, we propose to introduce off-flavor as a trait in breeding programs by identifying molecules involved in sensory perception and defining key breeding targets. We discuss the role of lipid oxidation in producing volatile and non-volatile compounds responsible for the beany aroma and bitter taste, respectively. We further investigate the contribution of saponin, tannin, and other polyphenols to bitterness and astringency. To develop faba bean varieties with diminished off-flavors, we suggest targeting genes to reduce lipid oxidation, such as lipoxygenases (lox) and fatty acid desaturases (fad), and genes involved in phenylpropanoid and saponin biosynthesis, such as zero-tannin (zt), chalcone isomerase (chi), chalcone synthase (chs), β-amyrin (bas1). Additionally, we address potential challenges, including the need for high-throughput phenotyping and possible limitations that could arise during the genetic improvement process. The breeding approach can facilitate the use of faba bean protein in plant-based food such as meat and dairy analogues more extensively, fostering a transition toward more sustainable and climate-resilient diets.

Plant Antioxidants in Dry Fermented Meat Products with a Healthier Lipid Profile

Consumers' perception of meat products has changed in recent years, which has led to an increased interest in healthier meat products. In response to this demand, academia and industry have made efforts to reformulate meat products, especially dry fermented meat products, which are known for their high fat contents, mainly saturated fat. The use of plant or marine oils stabilized in emulsion gels (EGs) or oil-bulking agents (OBAs) as animal fat replacers has been one of the most advantageous strategies to reformulate dry fermented meat products with a healthier lipid content (quality and quantity), but an increase in their polyunsaturated fatty acid content can trigger a significant increase in lipid oxidation, negatively affecting sensory and nutritional quality. The use of antioxidants is the main strategy to delay this deteriorative reaction, but the controversy around the safety and toxicity of synthetic antioxidants has driven consumers and industry toward the use of plant antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and some vitamins and minerals. This review provides information about the use of plant antioxidants to control lipid oxidation of dry fermented meat products with healthier lipids.

An alternative approach for sustainable sheep meat production: implications for food security

Background

A pelleted diet containing camelina hay (CAMH) or camelina meal (CAMM) as a supplement along with a control pellet (CONT) diet formulated with commonly available feeds during summer was used to investigate an alternative pathway for sustainable meat production. Sustainable meat production was based on a simple estimation of income from meat produced versus feed costs if animals were fed for an extended period over summer compared to early slaughter at the beginning of summer. Eighty maternal composite wether lambs (Composite) based on Coopworth genetics and 80 pure Merino wether yearlings were divided into 10 groups within breed (n = 8) using stratified randomisation based on liveweights. Following 1 week of adaptation to experimental diets, animals were fed experimental diets for up to10 weeks.

Results

Animals were slaughtered after either 8, 9 or 10 weeks of full feeding when the average liveweight of diet/genetic combination reached a weight appropriate for either ‘heavy lamb’ or ‘heavy hogget’ production, which occurred between 8 and 10 weeks of full feeding. There was no diet × breed interactions except for dressing percentage (DP), where Composite lambs fed the CAMH diet had the greatest DP (48.1 ± 0.35) and the Merino yearlings fed the CAMM diet the lowest DP (45.8 ± 0.33). Composite lambs gained 17.6–20.3 kg and Merino yearlings gained 10.7–12.9 kg liveweight. Based on their DP, this resulted in the production of approximately 8.3–9.5 kg additional carcass weight in Composites and 4.9–5.7 kg in Merinos, which in turn produced greater profit per Composite lamb and a small profit per Merino yearling.

Conclusions

Composite lambs fed CAMM and CAMH had 5% greater carcass weights at slaughter compared to the CONT group, but dietary treatments did not change carcass weight of Merino yearlings at slaughter. The extended feeding approach offered the producer an estimated economic gain of AUD $20.00 to $25.00 when yearly average prices were used (Method 1) and AUD $40.00 to $47.70 when pre- and post-summer average prices were used (Method 2) per Composite lambs, but extra carcass gain did not result in the same profit per Merino yearling. Among the Composites, the profit for animals fed the CAMH and CAMM were AUD $2.75 to $4.50 greater than CONT group when full year average prices were applied while AUD $3.50 to $5.50 greater than CONT group when pre- and post-summer average prices were applied. However, we acknowledge a combination approach of extended feeding for a portion of animals already on ground and selling the remaining animals pre-summer with joining of additional ewes is the most likely strategy. Considering the scenario of extended feeding for 3 weeks, based on the growth rates observed for Composite lambs, if an additional 2 kg carcass weight per animal can be gained for 50% of the 22 million lambs slaughtered in Australia (= 11 million animals), it would potentially supply an additional 22 million kg of lamb carcasses produced per annum. This is equivalent to producing an extra 1 million lamb carcasses per annum weighing 22 kg each. Feeding Composite lambs for an extended period and selling Merino yearlings pre-summer may be a good option due to faster growth rate of Composites that may help quick turn-over to market.

Use of lucerne hay in ruminant feeds to improve animal productivity, meat nutritional value and meat preservation under a more variable climate

This study investigated the effect of low energy (LE) and high energy (HE) diets fed to Crossbred and Merino sheep on carcass weight, meat nutritional value (essential fatty acids) and preservative (shelf life) aspects. Animals were slaughtered after seven weeks of feeding and the longissimus lumborum (LL) and rectus femoris (RF) muscles collected for measurement of fatty acid concentration and retail colour. Liveweight and carcass weight at slaughter were not affected by dietary treatments. Adding lucerne hay as an ingredient to LE diet increased (P < .001) omega-3 fatty acids concentrations and lowered (P < .001) the omega-6: omega-3 ratio in meat. The redness of meat for LL and RF muscles at simulated retail display was higher (P < .05) for lambs fed LE than lambs fed HE diet. Results indicate that adding lucerne hay as an ingredient in ruminant diets has potential for maintaining liveweight (wellbeing) of animals as well as nutritional value and preservative aspects of meat.

Plant-based stearidonic acid as sustainable source of omega-3 fatty acid with functional outcomes on human health

Dietary omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) are known to be potent biological regulators with therapeutic and preventive effects on human health. Many global health organizations have recommended consuming marine based omega-3 sources for neonatal brain development and reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. However, due to concerns regarding the origin, sustainable supply and safety of the marine sources, alternative n-3 PUFA sources are being explored. Recently, plant-based omega-3 sources are gaining much importance because of their sustainable supply and dietary acceptance. α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) rich seed oils are the major omega-3 fatty acid source available for human consumption. But, efficiency of conversion of ALA to n-3 LC-PUFAs in humans is limited due to a rate-limiting step in the n-3 pathway catalyzed by Δ6-desaturase. Botanical stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) rich oils are emerging as a sustainable omega-3 source with efficient conversion rate to n-3 LC-PUFA especially to EPA, as it bypasses the Δ6-desaturase rate limiting step. Several recent studies have identified the major plant sources of SDA and explored its potential health benefits and preventive roles in inflammation, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer. This systematic review summarizes the current state of knowledge on the sources, nutraceutical roles, food-based applications and the future perspectives of botanical SDA.

Muscle Antioxidant Enzymes Activity and Gene Expression Are Altered by Diet-Induced Increase in Muscle Essential Fatty Acid (α-linolenic acid) Concentration in Sheep Used as a Model

This study investigated the effect of dietary manipulations on muscle fatty acid composition, the activities and relative mRNA expressions of antioxidant enzymes and the relationship between muscle enzyme activity or mRNA expression and alpha linolenic acid (ALA) concentration in sheep. Eighty-four lambs blocked on liveweight were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments, lucerne pasture (Lucerne), annual ryegrass pasture (Ryegrass), feedlot pellets (Feedlot) or annual ryegrass plus feedlot pellets (RyeFeedlot). After six weeks of feeding, lambs were slaughtered and within 30 min post-mortem, samples collected from the longissimus lumborum (LL) muscle for RNA isolation and measurement of antioxidant enzyme activities. At 24 h post-mortem, LL samples were collected for determination of fatty acid concentrations. Feedlot treatment decreased ALA, eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosapentaenoic (DPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) concentrations compared with other treatments and increased linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA) compared with Lucerne and Ryegrass (p < 0.001). The activity of Glutathione peroxidase (GPX1, p < 0.001) and Superoxide dismutase (SOD2, p < 0.001) enzymes in the muscle increased with Lucerne compared to other treatments. Lucerne increased muscle gpx1 mRNA expression by 1.74-fold (p = 0.01) and 1.68-fold (p = 0.05) compared with Feedlot and other diets, respectively. The GPX1 (r² = 0.319, p = 0.002) and SOD2 (r² = 0.244, p = 0.009) enzyme activities were positively related to ALA. There was a positive linear relationship between muscle gpx1 (r² = 0.102, p = 0.017) or sod2 (r² = 0.049, p = 0.09) mRNA expressions and ALA concentration. This study demonstrates that diet can affect concentrations of ALA and other fatty acids as well as change activities and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes in muscle. Increased antioxidant activity may, in turn, have beneficial effects on the performance, health and wellbeing of animals and humans.

Projected Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acid Intake Post-Replacement of Vegetables Oils with Stearidonic Acid-Modified Varieties: Results from a National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2008 Analysis

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake is well below the amount recommended by the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (0.25 g/day), supporting the need for alternative dietary sources. Stearidonic acid (SDA)-enriched soybeans were bioengineered to endogenously synthesize SDA, which can be readily metabolized to EPA in humans; thus, incorporating the derived SDA-enriched soybean oil into the food supply is a potential strategy to increase EPA. We performed a dietary modeling exercise using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2008 repeat 24-h dietary recall data (n = 24,621) to estimate the potential contribution of SDA-enriched oils to total long-chain n-3 fatty acid intake (defined as EPA + DHA + EPA-equivalents) following two hypothetical scenarios: (1) replacement of regular soybean oil with SDA soybean oil and (2) replacement of four common vegetable oils (corn, canola, cottonseed, and soybean) with respective SDA-modified varieties. Estimated median daily intakes increased from 0.11 to 0.16 g/day post-replacement of regular soybean oil with SDA-modified soybean oil, and to 0.21 g/day post-replacement of four oils with SDA-modified oil; the corresponding mean intakes were 0.17, 0.27, and 0.44 g/day, respectively. The percent of the population who met the 0.25 g/day recommendation increased from at least 10% to at least 30% and 40% in scenarios 1 and 2, respectively. Additional strategies are needed to ensure the majority of the US population achieve EPA and DHA recommendations, and should be assessed using methods designed to estimate the distribution of usual intake of these episodically consumed nutrients.

N-3 PUFAs induce inflammatory tolerance by formation of KEAP1-containing SQSTM1/p62-bodies and activation of NFE2L2

Inflammation is crucial in the defense against infections but must be tightly controlled to limit detrimental hyperactivation. Our diet influences inflammatory processes and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) have known anti-inflammatory effects. The balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory processes is coordinated by macrophages and macroautophagy/autophagy has recently emerged as a cellular process that dampens inflammation. Here we report that the n-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) transiently induces cytosolic speckles of the autophagic receptor SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1) (described as SQSTM1/p62-bodies) in macrophages. We suggest that the formation of SQSTM1/p62-bodies represents a fast mechanism of NFE2L2/Nrf2 (nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2) activation by recruitment of KEAP1 (kelch like ECH associated protein 1). Further, the autophagy receptor TAX1BP1 (Tax1 binding protein 1) and ubiquitin-editing enzyme TNFAIP3/A20 (TNF α induced protein 3) could be identified in DHA-induced SQSTM1/p62-bodies. Simultaneously, DHA strongly dampened the induction of pro-inflammatory genes including CXCL10 (C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10) and we suggest that formation of SQSTM1/p62-bodies and activation of NFE2L2 leads to tolerance towards selective inflammatory stimuli. Finally, reduced CXCL10 levels were related to the improved clinical outcome in n-3 PUFA-supplemented heart-transplant patients and we propose CXCL10 as a robust marker for the clinical benefits mobilized by n-3 PUFA supplementation.

ω-3 in meat products: benefits and effects on lipid oxidative stability

Although ω-3 intake has been associated with numerous health benefits, its addition to certain food matrices, and in particular meat products, may involve various technological barriers influencing the final quality of the products. Lipid oxidation must be highlighted due to the modification of both the sensory characteristics and the shelf-life of meat products. In order to reduce the impact of chemical changes and promote oxidative stability, the use of natural antioxidants has gained ground owing to the health and safety advantages linked to its effectiveness at reducing lipid oxidation. Many natural compounds have also been successfully tested in animal feed, in order to protect the raw meat materials and reduce the risk of lipid oxidation in processed products. This review aims to address the challenges and advantages of the incorporation of ω-3 fatty acids in raw meat materials and processed meat products, and to describe the use of different compounds to enhance lipid oxidative stability. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Lipid oxidation in base algae oil and water-in-algae oil emulsion: Impact of natural antioxidants and emulsifiers

The impact of natural hydrophilic antioxidants, metal chelators, and hydrophilic antioxidant/metal chelator mixture on the oxidative stability of base algae oil and water-in-algae oil emulsion was investigated. The results showed that green tea extract and ascorbic acid had greatest protective effect against algae oil oxidation and generated four day lag phase, whereas rosmarinic acid, grape seed extract, grape seed extract polymer, deferoxamine (DFO), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) had no significant protective effect. Besides, there was no synergistic effect observed between natural antioxidants and ascorbic acid. The emulsifiers are critical to the physicochemical stability of water-in-algae oil emulsions. Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) promoted the oxidation of emulsion. Conversely, the protective effect on algae oil oxidation was appreciated when defatted soybean lecithin (PC 75) or defatted lyso-lecithin (Lyso-PC) was added. The role of hydrophilic antioxidants in emulsion was similar to that in algae oil except EDTA which demonstrated strong antioxidative effect in emulsion. The results could provide information to build up stable food products containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).

Review: In vivo and postmortem effects of feed antioxidants in livestock: a review of the implications on authorization of antioxidant feed additives

The pivotal roles of regulatory jurisdictions in the feed additive sector cannot be over-emphasized. In the European Union (EU), antioxidant substances are authorized as feed additives for prolonging the shelf life of feedstuffs based on their effect for preventing lipid peroxidation. However, the efficacy of antioxidants transcends their functional use as technological additives in animal feeds. Promising research results have revealed the in vivo efficacy of dietary antioxidants for combating oxidative stress in production animals. The in vivo effect of antioxidants is significant for enhancing animal health and welfare. Similarly, postmortem effect of dietary antioxidants has been demonstrated to improve the nutritional, organoleptic and shelf-life qualities of animal products. In practice, dietary antioxidants have been traditionally used by farmers for these benefits in livestock production. However, some antioxidants particularly when supplemented in excess could act as prooxidants and exert detrimental effects on animal well-being and product quality. Presently, there is no exclusive legislation in the EU to justify the authorization of antioxidant products for these in vivo and postmortem efficacy claims. To indicate these efficacy claims and appropriate dosage on product labels, it is important to broaden the authorization status of antioxidants through the appraisal of existing EU legislations on feed additives. Such regulatory review will have major impact on the legislative categorization of antioxidants and the efficacy assessment in the technical dossier application. The present review harnesses the scientific investigations of these efficacy claims in production animals and, proposes potential categorization and appraisal of in vivo methodologies for efficacy assessment of antioxidants. This review further elucidates the implication of such regulatory review on the practical application of antioxidants as feed additives in livestock production. Effecting these regulatory changes will stimulate the innovation of more potent antioxidant products and create potential new markets that will have profound economic impacts on the feed additive industry. Based on the in vivo efficacy claims, antioxidants may have to contend with the legislative controversy of either to be considered as veterinary drugs or feed additives. In this scenario, antioxidants are not intended to diagnose or cure diseases as ascribed to veterinary products. This twisted distinction can be logically debated with reference to the stipulated status of feed additives in Commission Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003. Nonetheless, it is imperative for relevant stakeholders in the feed additive industry to lobby for the review of existing EU legislations for authorization of antioxidants for these efficacy claims.

Development of stable flaxseed oil emulsions as a potential delivery system of ω-3 fatty acids

The objective of the present study was to develop a stable flaxseed oil emulsion for the delivery of omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids through food fortification. Oil-in-water emulsions containing 12.5 % flaxseed oil, 10 % lactose and whey protein concentrate (WPC)-80 ranging from 5 to 12.5 % were prepared at 1,500, 3,000 and 4,500 psi homogenization pressure. Flaxseed oil emulsions were studied for its physical stability, oxidative stability (peroxide value), particle size distribution, zeta (ζ)-potential and rheological properties. Emulsions homogenized at 1,500 and 4,500 psi pressure showed oil separation and curdling of WPC, respectively, during preparation or storage. All the combinations of emulsions (homogenized at 3,000 psi) were physically stable for 28 days at 4-7 ºC temperature and did not show separation of phases. Emulsion with 7.5 % WPC showed the narrowest particle size distribution (190 to 615 nm) and maximum zeta (ζ)-potential (-33.5 mV). There was a slight increase in peroxide value (~20.98 %) of all the emulsions (except 5 % WPC emulsion), as compared to that of free flaxseed oil (~44.26 %) after 4 weeks of storage. Emulsions showed flow behavior index (n) in the range of 0.206 to 0.591, indicating higher shear thinning behavior, which is a characteristic of food emulsions. Results indicated that the most stable emulsion of flaxseed oil (12.5 %) can be formulated with 7.5 % WPC-80 and 10 % lactose (filler), homogenized at 3,000 psi pressure. The formulated emulsion can be used as potential omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids delivery system in developing functional foods such as pastry, ice-creams, curd, milk, yogurt, cakes, etc.

Emerging nutrition science on fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: nutritionists' perspectives

Recent dietary guidance for heart health recommends a reduction (by ∼50%) in saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake to reduce LDL cholesterol and to decrease risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends substituting unsaturated fat [both polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs and MUFAs, respectively)] for SFAs. There are many dietary options that can be implemented to replace SFAs, given the different sources of unsaturated fats in the food supply. Compelling evidence exists for the cardioprotective benefits of n-3 (ω-3) PUFAs, both marine- and plant-derived. In addition, the evidence of cardioprotective benefits of n-6 (ω-6) PUFAs is strong, whereas that for MUFAs is mixed, although there is emerging evidence of benefits. Quantitatively, lowering SFAs by 50% will require, in part, substituting food sources of n-6 and n-3 PUFAs and MUFAs for food sources of SFAs. The use of n-3 PUFAs as a replacement for SFAs will result in a shortfall in reaching the SFA goal because of the relatively low amounts that can be incorporated in the diet, even with very high n-3 PUFA substitution. SFAs also can be replaced with dietary carbohydrate and/or protein. Replacing SFAs with carbohydrate, specifically refined sources, however, has little impact on reducing CVD risk. There is evidence about the health benefits of dietary protein on CVD risk, which merits study. Dietary guidelines have advanced considerably with the "replacement of SFA with unsaturated fat message" instead of recommending decreasing SFAs alone. A key question that remains is what is the optimal mix of macronutrients to maximally reduce CVD risk.

Quantitative analysis of volatiles in edible oils following accelerated oxidation using broad spectrum isotope standards

Analysis of food volatiles generated by processing are widely reported but comparisons across studies is challenging in part because most reports are inherently semi-quantitative for most analytes due to limited availability of chemical standards. We recently introduced a novel strategy for creation of broad spectrum isotopic standards for accurate quantitative food chemical analysis. Here we apply the principle to quantification of 25 volatiles in seven thermally oxidised edible oils. After extended oxidation, total volatiles of high n-3 oils (flax, fish, cod liver) were 120-170 mg/kg while low n-3 vegetable oils were <50mg/kg. Separate experiments on thermal degradation of d5-ethyl linolenate indicate that off-aroma volatiles originate throughout the n-3 molecule and not solely the n-3 terminal end. These data represent the first report using broad-spectrum isotopically labelled standards for quantitative characterisation of processing-induced volatile generation across related foodstuffs, and verify the origin of specific volatiles from parent n-3 fatty acids.

Design of foods with bioactive lipids for improved health

Numerous studies have found an association between the consumption of certain bioactive lipids and improved human health, e.g., the prevention, delay, or treatment of chronic and acute diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), osteoporosis, and immune disorders. In this review, we discuss food-based sources and potential beneficial attributes of major dietary bioactive lipids: polyunsaturated fatty acids; carotenoids; phytosterols and phytostanols; and fat-soluble vitamins. We summarize the various challenges associated with incorporating these bioactive lipids into foods and beverages, such as poor water solubility, high melting point, and low chemical stability. Finally, we propose several techniques that have been used to solve the challenges and integrate dietary bioactive lipids into foods for improved health.

Margarines fortified with α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, or docosahexaenoic acid alter the fatty acid composition of erythrocytes but do not affect the antioxidant status of healthy adults

We aimed to investigate the effects of increased intake of α-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, or DHA incorporated into a food matrix on the fatty acid composition of erythrocytes and on biomarkers of oxidant/antioxidant status. To this end, a controlled dietary study was conducted in 74 healthy men and women. The participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 interventions in which margarines fortified with either 10 weight percent ALA, EPA, or DHA ethyl esters replaced their normal spread for 6 wk. The total intakes of ALA, EPA, and DHA were 4.4, 2.2, and 2.3 g/d, respectively. Consuming EPA increased the erythrocyte proportion of EPA (394%) and the omega-3 index (sum of EPA and DHA, 38%). Consumption of DHA increased erythrocyte DHA (91%), the omega-3 index (98%), and EPA (137%). The omega-3 index increased to a significantly greater extent in the DHA group than in the EPA group. ALA did not increase erythrocyte EPA or the omega-3 index. We found no change in plasma uric acid or antioxidant capacity in any of the groups. Plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) increased with the EPA and DHA interventions. All 3 interventions decreased erythrocyte linoleic acid hydroperoxides but did not affect their MDA concentrations. In conclusion, the intake of both isolated EPA and DHA incorporated into margarine resulted in an enhanced incorporation of EPA and DHA into erythrocytes. Our findings indicate that DHA is quantitatively superior to EPA in view of the EPA+DHA tissue incorporation and also that 4 g/d ALA is not sufficient to increase the omega-3 index over a 6-wk period.

Conclusions and recommendations from the symposium, Heart Healthy Omega-3s for Food: Stearidonic Acid (SDA) as a Sustainable Choice

Faculty who had presented at the symposium "Heart Healthy Omega-3s (n-3 fatty acids) for Food: Stearidonic Acid (SDA) as a Sustainable Choice" met and agreed upon conclusions and recommendations that could be made on the basis of evidence provided at the symposium. The participants also submitted manuscripts relating to their topics and these are presented in this supplement. These manuscripts were reviewed and also contributed to the conclusions and recommendations presented herein. The three major objectives of the symposium were to: 1) increase understanding of the current and emerging knowledge regarding the health benefits of (n-3) fatty acids (FA) including a focus on stearidonic acid (SDA) and EPA; 2) evaluate the importance of increasing (n-3) FA consumption in the US and the current challenge of doing so via mainstream foods; and 3) consider the health and food application benefits of SDA as a precursor to EPA and a plant-based sustainable source of highly unsaturated (n-3) FA for mainstream foods. Specific areas for future research were defined and included in the summary and conclusions herein. Overall evidence-based conclusions included: the current evidence provides a strong rationale for increasing (n-3) FA intakes in the US and other populations; current consumption of (n-3) FA in most populations is either insufficient or not efficient at providing adequate tissue levels of the long-chain (n-3) FA EPA and DHA; SDA in soybean oil appears to be a cost-effective and sustainable plant-based source that could contribute to reaching recommended levels of (n-3) FA intake, but more research and surveillance is needed; and adding SDA-enriched soybean oil to foods should be considered as a natural fortification approach to improving (n-3) FA status in the US and other populations. References for these conclusions and recommendations can be found in the articles included in the supplement.