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Loh JM, Aghababa H, Proft T. Eluding the immune system's frontline defense: Secreted complement evasion factors of pathogenic Gram-positive cocci. Microbiol Res 2023; 277:127512. [PMID: 37826985 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2023.127512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
The human complement system is an important part of the innate immune response in the fight against invasive bacteria. Complement responses can be activated independently by the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, or the alternative pathway, each resulting in the formation of a C3 convertase that produces the anaphylatoxin C3a and the opsonin C3b by specifically cutting C3. Other important features of complement are the production of the chemotactic C5a peptide and the generation of the membrane attack complex to lyse intruding pathogens. Invasive pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and several species of the genus Streptococcus have developed a variety of complement evasion strategies to resist complement activity thereby increasing their virulence and potential to cause disease. In this review, we focus on secreted complement evasion factors that assist the bacteria to avoid opsonization and terminal pathway lysis. We also briefly discuss the potential role of complement evasion factors for the development of vaccines and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacelyn Ms Loh
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Haniyeh Aghababa
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Thomas Proft
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland, New Zealand.
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2
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Paterson NM, Al-Zubieri H, Ragona J, Kohler KM, Tirado J, Geisbrecht BV, Barber MF. Dynamic Evolution of Bacterial Ligand Recognition by Formyl Peptide Receptors. Genome Biol Evol 2023; 15:evad175. [PMID: 37776517 PMCID: PMC10566242 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evad175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The detection of invasive pathogens is critical for host immune defense. Cell surface receptors play a key role in the recognition of diverse microbe-associated molecules, triggering leukocyte recruitment, phagocytosis, release of antimicrobial compounds, and cytokine production. The intense evolutionary forces acting on innate immune receptor genes have contributed to their rapid diversification across plants and animals. However, the functional consequences of immune receptor divergence are often unclear. Formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) comprise a family of animal G protein-coupled receptors which are activated in response to a variety of ligands including formylated bacterial peptides, pathogen virulence factors, and host-derived antimicrobial peptides. FPR activation in turn promotes inflammatory signaling and leukocyte migration to sites of infection. Here we investigate patterns of gene loss, diversification, and ligand recognition among FPRs in primates and carnivores. We find that FPR1, which plays a critical role in innate immune defense in humans, has been lost in New World primates. Amino acid variation in FPR1 and FPR2 among primates and carnivores is consistent with a history of repeated positive selection acting on extracellular domains involved in ligand recognition. To assess the consequences of FPR divergence on bacterial ligand interactions, we measured binding between primate FPRs and the FPR agonist Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B, as well as S. aureus FLIPr-like, an FPR inhibitor. We found that few rapidly evolving sites in primate FPRs are sufficient to modulate recognition of bacterial proteins, demonstrating how natural selection may serve to tune FPR activation in response to diverse microbial ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Paterson
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Hussein Al-Zubieri
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
| | - Joseph Ragona
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Kristin M Kohler
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
| | - Juan Tirado
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
| | - Brian V Geisbrecht
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Matthew F Barber
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
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3
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Lebtig M, Scheurer J, Muenkel M, Becker J, Bastounis E, Peschel A, Kretschmer D. Keratinocytes use FPR2 to detect Staphylococcus aureus and initiate antimicrobial skin defense. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1188555. [PMID: 37325619 PMCID: PMC10264695 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1188555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Keratinocytes form a multilayer barrier that protects the skin from invaders or injuries. The barrier function of keratinocytes is in part mediated by the production of inflammatory modulators that promote immune responses and wound healing. Skin commensals and pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus secrete high amounts of phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) peptides, agonists of formyl-peptide receptor 2 (FPR2). FPR2 is crucial for the recruitment of neutrophils to the sites of infection, and it can influence inflammation. FPR1 and FPR2 are also expressed by keratinocytes but the consequences of FPR activation in skin cells have remained unknown. Methods Since an inflammatory environment influences S. aureus colonization, e. g. in patients with atopic dermatitis (AD), we hypothesized that interference with FPRs may alter keratinocyte-induced inflammation, proliferation, and bacterial colonization of the skin. To assess this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of FPR activation and inhibition in keratinocytes with respect to chemokine and cytokine release as well as proliferation and skin wound gap closure. Results We observed that FPR activation induces the release of IL-8, IL-1α and promotes keratinocyte proliferation in a FPR-dependent manner. To elucidate the consequence of FPR modulation on skin colonization, we used an AD-simulating S. aureus skin colonization mouse model using wild-type (WT) or Fpr2-/- mice and demonstrate that inflammation enhances the eradication of S. aureus from the skin in a FPR2-dependent way. Consistently, inhibition of FPR2 in the mouse model or in human keratinocytes as well as human skin explants promoted S. aureus colonization. Discussion Our data indicate that FPR2 ligands promote inflammation and keratinocyte proliferation in a FPR2-dependent manner, which is necessary for eliminating S. aureus during skin colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Lebtig
- Department first: Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jasmin Scheurer
- Department of Dermatology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Marie Muenkel
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Janna Becker
- Department first: Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Effie Bastounis
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Department first: Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dorothee Kretschmer
- Department first: Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124 Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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4
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Tao Z, Wang H, Ke K, Shi D, Zhu L. Flavone inhibits Staphylococcus aureus virulence via inhibiting the sae two component system. Microb Pathog 2023; 180:106128. [PMID: 37148922 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The rising prevalence of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus calls for the development of innovative antimicrobial agents targeting novel pathways. S. aureus generates various virulence factors that compromise host defense mechanisms. Flavone, a core structure of flavonoids, has been shown to diminish the production of staphyloxanthin and alpha-hemolysin. Nonetheless, the influence of flavone on the majority of other virulence factors in S. aureus and its underlying molecular mechanism remain elusive. In this study, we examined the impact of flavone on the transcriptional profile of S. aureus using transcriptome sequencing. Our findings revealed that flavone substantially downregulated the expression of over 30 virulence factors implicated in immune evasion by the pathogen. Gene set enrichment analysis of the fold change-ranked gene list in relation to the Sae regulon indicated a robust association between flavone-induced downregulation and membership in the Sae regulon. Through the analysis of Sae target promoter-gfp fusion expression patterns, we observed a dose-dependent inhibition of Sae target promoter activity by flavone. Moreover, we discovered that flavone protected human neutrophils from S. aureus-mediated killing. Flavone also decreased the expression of alpha-hemolysin and other hemolytic toxins, resulting in a reduction in S. aureus' hemolytic capacity. Additionally, our data suggested that the inhibitory effect of flavone on the Sae system operates independently of its capacity to lower staphyloxanthin levels. In conclusion, our study proposes that flavone exhibits a broad inhibitory action on multiple virulence factors of S. aureus by targeting the Sae system, consequently diminishing the bacterium's pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanhua Tao
- Institute of Eco-Environmental Research, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530003, Guangxi, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Marine Natural Products and Combinatorial Biosynthesis Chemistry, Nanning, 530003, Guangxi, China.
| | - Haoren Wang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, 154002, Heilongjiang, China.
| | - Ke Ke
- Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530003, Guangxi, China.
| | - Deqiang Shi
- Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530003, Guangxi, China.
| | - Libo Zhu
- Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, 530003, Guangxi, China.
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Bruserud Ø, Mosevoll KA, Bruserud Ø, Reikvam H, Wendelbo Ø. The Regulation of Neutrophil Migration in Patients with Sepsis: The Complexity of the Molecular Mechanisms and Their Modulation in Sepsis and the Heterogeneity of Sepsis Patients. Cells 2023; 12:cells12071003. [PMID: 37048076 PMCID: PMC10093057 DOI: 10.3390/cells12071003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. Common causes include gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria as well as fungi. Neutrophils are among the first cells to arrive at an infection site where they function as important effector cells of the innate immune system and as regulators of the host immune response. The regulation of neutrophil migration is therefore important both for the infection-directed host response and for the development of organ dysfunctions in sepsis. Downregulation of CXCR4/CXCL12 stimulates neutrophil migration from the bone marrow. This is followed by transmigration/extravasation across the endothelial cell barrier at the infection site; this process is directed by adhesion molecules and various chemotactic gradients created by chemotactic cytokines, lipid mediators, bacterial peptides, and peptides from damaged cells. These mechanisms of neutrophil migration are modulated by sepsis, leading to reduced neutrophil migration and even reversed migration that contributes to distant organ failure. The sepsis-induced modulation seems to differ between neutrophil subsets. Furthermore, sepsis patients should be regarded as heterogeneous because neutrophil migration will possibly be further modulated by the infecting microorganisms, antimicrobial treatment, patient age/frailty/sex, other diseases (e.g., hematological malignancies and stem cell transplantation), and the metabolic status. The present review describes molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of neutrophil migration; how these mechanisms are altered during sepsis; and how bacteria/fungi, antimicrobial treatment, and aging/frailty/comorbidity influence the regulation of neutrophil migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øystein Bruserud
- Leukemia Research Group, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, 5021 Bergen, Norway
- Section for Hematology, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway
- Correspondence:
| | - Knut Anders Mosevoll
- Section for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway
- Section for Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical Research, University of Bergen, 5021 Bergen, Norway
| | - Øyvind Bruserud
- Department for Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway
| | - Håkon Reikvam
- Leukemia Research Group, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, 5021 Bergen, Norway
- Section for Hematology, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway
| | - Øystein Wendelbo
- Section for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway
- Faculty of Health, VID Specialized University, Ulriksdal 10, 5009 Bergen, Norway
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Dahlgren C, Lind S, Mårtensson J, Björkman L, Wu Y, Sundqvist M, Forsman H. G
protein coupled pattern recognition receptors expressed in neutrophils
: Recognition, activation/modulation, signaling and receptor regulated functions. Immunol Rev 2022; 314:69-92. [PMID: 36285739 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils, the most abundant white blood cell in human blood, express receptors that recognize damage/microbial associated pattern molecules of importance for cell recruitment to sites of inflammation. Many of these receptors belong to the family of G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). These receptor-proteins span the plasma membrane in expressing cells seven times and the down-stream signaling rely in most cases on an activation of heterotrimeric G proteins. The GPCRs expressed in neutrophils recognize a number of structurally diverse ligands (activating agonists, allosteric modulators, and inhibiting antagonists) and share significant sequence homologies. Studies of receptor structure and function have during the last 40 years generated important information on GPCR biology in general; this knowledge aids in the overall understanding of general pharmacological principles, governing regulation of neutrophil function and inflammatory processes, including novel leukocyte receptor activities related to ligand recognition, biased/functional selective signaling, allosteric modulation, desensitization, and reactivation mechanisms as well as communication (receptor transactivation/cross-talk) between GPCRs. This review summarizes the recent discoveries and pharmacological hallmarks with focus on some of the neutrophil expressed pattern recognition GPCRs. In addition, unmet challenges, including recognition by the receptors of diverse ligands and how biased signaling mediate different biological effects are described/discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claes Dahlgren
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
| | - Simon Lind
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
| | - Jonas Mårtensson
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
| | - Lena Björkman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
| | - Yanling Wu
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
| | - Martina Sundqvist
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
| | - Huamei Forsman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research University of Göteborg. Göteborg Sweden
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7
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Cruz AR, Bentlage AEH, Blonk R, de Haas CJC, Aerts PC, Scheepmaker LM, Bouwmeester IG, Lux A, van Strijp JAG, Nimmerjahn F, van Kessel KPM, Vidarsson G, Rooijakkers SHM. Toward Understanding How Staphylococcal Protein A Inhibits IgG-Mediated Phagocytosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 209:1146-1155. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
IgG molecules are crucial for the human immune response against bacterial infections. IgGs can trigger phagocytosis by innate immune cells, like neutrophils. To do so, IgGs should bind to the bacterial surface via their variable Fab regions and interact with Fcγ receptors and complement C1 via the constant Fc domain. C1 binding to IgG-labeled bacteria activates the complement cascade, which results in bacterial decoration with C3-derived molecules that are recognized by complement receptors on neutrophils. Next to FcγRs and complement receptors on the membrane, neutrophils also express the intracellular neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn). We previously reported that staphylococcal protein A (SpA), a key immune-evasion protein of Staphylococcus aureus, potently blocks IgG-mediated complement activation and killing of S. aureus by interfering with IgG hexamer formation. SpA is also known to block IgG-mediated phagocytosis in absence of complement, but the mechanism behind it remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that SpA blocks IgG-mediated phagocytosis and killing of S. aureus and that it inhibits the interaction of IgGs with FcγRs (FcγRIIa and FcγRIIIb, but not FcγRI) and FcRn. Furthermore, our data show that multiple SpA domains are needed to effectively block IgG1-mediated phagocytosis. This provides a rationale for the fact that SpA from S. aureus contains four to five repeats. Taken together, our study elucidates the molecular mechanism by which SpA blocks IgG-mediated phagocytosis and supports the idea that in addition to FcγRs, the intracellular FcRn is also prevented from binding IgG by SpA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Cruz
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Arthur E. H. Bentlage
- †Department of Experimental Immunohematology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; and
| | - Robin Blonk
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Carla J. C. de Haas
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Piet C. Aerts
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lisette M. Scheepmaker
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Inge G. Bouwmeester
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Anja Lux
- ‡Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jos A. G. van Strijp
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Falk Nimmerjahn
- ‡Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Kok P. M. van Kessel
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Gestur Vidarsson
- †Department of Experimental Immunohematology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; and
| | - Suzan H. M. Rooijakkers
- *Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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8
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Zhu S, Hu X, Bennett S, Mai Y, Xu J. Molecular Structure, Expression and Role of TAFA4 and its Receptor FPR1 in the Spinal Cord. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:911414. [PMID: 35712659 PMCID: PMC9194834 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.911414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
TAFA chemokine like family member 4 (TAFA4, also named FAM19A4) is a member of the TAFA chemokine like ligand or FAM19A family, which includes TAFA1, TAFA2, TAFA3, TAFA4, and TAFA5 (or FAM19A1, FAM19A2, FAM19A3, FAM19A4, and FAM19A5). They are also referred to as neurokines and are involved in the regulation of a diverse range of cellular processes, including chemotaxis of macrophages, phagocytosis, and release of reactive oxygen species (ROS). TAFA4 is a marker of C-low-threshold mechanoreceptors and is expressed predominantly in nociceptors, such as dorsal root ganglia (DRG). TAFA4 has been implicated in the sensory perception of pain in the spinal cord. Mice with deficiency of TAFA4 demonstrate altered excitability in lamina IIi neurons in DRG in addition to increased mechanical and chemical nociception following inflammation or injury. As a secreted protein, TAFA4 binds to cell surface receptor formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1), a G protein-coupled receptor to mediate the chemoattraction of macrophages, phagocytosis, and the inflammatory profile of macrophages. It also interacts with cell surface neurexin to mediate signalling across the synapse. Further understanding the mechanisms by which this conserved protein family regulates diverse biological processes such as in neuronal functions, inflammation, and tissue fibrosis will help to design therapeutic targets for the treatment of TAFA related diseases such as spinal cord injury and neuro-inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sipin Zhu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children’s Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Molecular Lab, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Xiaoyong Hu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Industrial Surfactant, Guangdong Research Institute of Petrochemical and Fine Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Samuel Bennett
- Molecular Lab, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Yuliang Mai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Industrial Surfactant, Guangdong Research Institute of Petrochemical and Fine Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Yuliang Mai, ; Jiake Xu,
| | - Jiake Xu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children’s Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Molecular Lab, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- *Correspondence: Yuliang Mai, ; Jiake Xu,
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9
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Cheung GYC, Bae JS, Otto M. Pathogenicity and virulence of Staphylococcus aureus. Virulence 2021; 12:547-569. [PMID: 33522395 PMCID: PMC7872022 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1878688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 491] [Impact Index Per Article: 163.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most frequent worldwide causes of morbidity and mortality due to an infectious agent. This pathogen can cause a wide variety of diseases, ranging from moderately severe skin infections to fatal pneumonia and sepsis. Treatment of S. aureus infections is complicated by antibiotic resistance and a working vaccine is not available. There has been ongoing and increasing interest in the extraordinarily high number of toxins and other virulence determinants that S. aureus produces and how they impact disease. In this review, we will give an overview of how S. aureus initiates and maintains infection and discuss the main determinants involved. A more in-depth understanding of the function and contribution of S. aureus virulence determinants to S. aureus infection will enable us to develop anti-virulence strategies to counteract the lack of an anti-S. aureus vaccine and the ever-increasing shortage of working antibiotics against this important pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon Y. C. Cheung
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, U.S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Justin S. Bae
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, U.S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael Otto
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, U.S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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10
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Kretschmer D, Breitmeyer R, Gekeler C, Lebtig M, Schlatterer K, Nega M, Stahl M, Stapels D, Rooijakkers S, Peschel A. Staphylococcus aureus Depends on Eap Proteins for Preventing Degradation of Its Phenol-Soluble Modulin Toxins by Neutrophil Serine Proteases. Front Immunol 2021; 12:701093. [PMID: 34552584 PMCID: PMC8451722 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.701093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil granulocytes act as a first line of defense against pathogenic staphylococci. However, Staphylococcus aureus has a remarkable capacity to survive neutrophil killing, which distinguishes it from the less-pathogenic Staphylococcus epidermidis. Both species release phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) toxins, which activate the neutrophil formyl-peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) to promote neutrophil influx and phagocytosis, and which disrupt neutrophils or their phagosomal membranes at high concentrations. We show here that the neutrophil serine proteases (NSPs) neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G and proteinase 3, which are released into the extracellular space or the phagosome upon neutrophil FPR2 stimulation, effectively degrade PSMs thereby preventing their capacity to activate and destroy neutrophils. Notably, S. aureus, but not S. epidermidis, secretes potent NSP-inhibitory proteins, Eap, EapH1, EapH2, which prevented the degradation of PSMs by NSPs. Accordingly, a S. aureus mutant lacking all three NSP inhibitory proteins was less effective in activating and destroying neutrophils and it survived less well in the presence of neutrophils than the parental strain. We show that Eap proteins promote pathology via PSM-mediated FPR2 activation since murine intraperitoneal infection with the S. aureus parental but not with the NSP inhibitors mutant strain, led to a significantly higher bacterial load in the peritoneum and kidneys of mFpr2-/- compared to wild-type mice. These data demonstrate that NSPs can very effectively detoxify some of the most potent staphylococcal toxins and that the prominent human pathogen S. aureus has developed efficient inhibitors to preserve PSM functions. Preventing PSM degradation during infection represents an important survival strategy to ensure FPR2 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee Kretschmer
- Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ricarda Breitmeyer
- Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany
| | - Cordula Gekeler
- Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany
| | - Marco Lebtig
- Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katja Schlatterer
- Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mulugeta Nega
- Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany.,Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Microbial Genetics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mark Stahl
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daphne Stapels
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Suzan Rooijakkers
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Infection Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence EXC2124 "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections", Tübingen, Germany
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11
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Rungelrath V, DeLeo FR. Staphylococcus aureus, Antibiotic Resistance, and the Interaction with Human Neutrophils. Antioxid Redox Signal 2021; 34:452-470. [PMID: 32460514 PMCID: PMC8020508 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2020.8127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Significance:Staphylococcus aureus is among the leading causes of bacterial infections worldwide. The high burden of S. aureus among human and animal hosts, which includes asymptomatic carriage and infection, is coupled with a notorious ability of the microbe to become resistant to antibiotics. Notably, S. aureus has the ability to produce molecules that promote evasion of host defense, including the ability to avoid killing by neutrophils. Recent Advances: Significant progress has been made to better understand S. aureus-host interactions. These discoveries include elucidation of the role played by numerous S. aureus virulence molecules during infection. Based on putative functions, a number of these virulence molecules, including S. aureus alpha-hemolysin and protein A, have been identified as therapeutic targets. Although it has not been possible to develop a vaccine that can prevent S. aureus infections, monoclonal antibodies specific for S. aureus virulence molecules have the potential to moderate the severity of disease. Critical Issues: Therapeutic options for treatment of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are limited, and the microbe typically develops resistance to new antibiotics. New prophylactics and/or therapeutics are needed. Future Directions: Research that promotes an enhanced understanding of S. aureus-host interaction is an important step toward developing new therapeutic approaches directed to moderate disease severity and facilitate treatment of infection. This research effort includes studies that enhance our view of the interaction of S. aureus with human neutrophils. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 34, 452-470.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Rungelrath
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Frank R DeLeo
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, USA
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12
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Zheng X, Bai J, Ye M, Liu Y, Jin Y, He X. Bivariate genome-wide association study of the growth plasticity of Staphylococcus aureus in coculture with Escherichia coli. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:5437-5447. [PMID: 32350560 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10636-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity is the capacity to change the phenotype in response to different environments without alteration of the genotype. Despite sufficient evidence that microorganisms have a major role in the fitness and sickness of eukaryotes, there has been little research regarding microbial phenotypic plasticity. In this study, 45 strains of Staphylococcus aureus were grown for 12 days in both monoculture and in coculture with the same strain of Escherichia coli to create a competitive environment. Cell abundance was determined by quantitative PCR every 24 h, and growth curves of each S. aureus strain under the two sets of conditions were generated. Combined with whole-genome resequencing data, bivariate genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed to analyze the growth plasticity of S. aureus in coculture. Finally, 20 significant single-nucleotide polymorphisms (eight annotated, seven unannotated, and five non-coding regions) were obtained, which may affect the competitive growth of S. aureus. This study advances genome-wide bacterial growth plasticity research and demonstrates the potential of bivariate GWAS for bacterial phenotypic plasticity research. KEY POINTS: • Growth plasticity of S. aureus was analyzed by bivariate GWAS. • Twenty significant SNPs may affect the growth plasticity of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuyang Zheng
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Jun Bai
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Meixia Ye
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
- Center for Computational Biology, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yanxi Liu
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yi Jin
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China.
| | - Xiaoqing He
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China.
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13
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de Vor L, Rooijakkers SHM, van Strijp JAG. Staphylococci evade the innate immune response by disarming neutrophils and forming biofilms. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:2556-2569. [PMID: 32144756 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis can cause many types of infections, ranging from skin infections to implant-associated infections. The primary innate immune response against bacterial infections involves complement activation, recruitment of phagocytes (most importantly neutrophils), and subsequent killing of the pathogen. However, staphylococci are not innocent bystanders; they actively obstruct this immune attack. To do that, S. aureus secretes several immune-evasion proteins to resist attack by the innate immune system. Furthermore, S. aureus and S. epidermidis are known for their ability to form biofilms on implanted medical devices and host tissues, which provides another important immune-evasion mechanism. Understanding these different strategies to resist immune attack will help to develop novel therapies against staphylococcal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne de Vor
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - Suzan H M Rooijakkers
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - Jos A G van Strijp
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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14
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Sundqvist M, Christenson K, Gabl M, Holdfeldt A, Jennbacken K, Møller TC, Dahlgren C, Forsman H. Staphylococcus aureus–Derived PSMα Peptides Activate Neutrophil FPR2 but Lack the Ability to Mediate β-Arrestin Recruitment and Chemotaxis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 203:3349-3360. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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15
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Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus has become a serious threat to human health. In addition to having increased antibiotic resistance, the bacterium is a master at adapting to its host by evading almost every facet of the immune system, the so-called immune evasion proteins. Many of these immune evasion proteins target neutrophils, the most important immune cells in clearing S. aureus infections. The neutrophil attacks pathogens via a plethora of strategies. Therefore, it is no surprise that S. aureus has evolved numerous immune evasion strategies at almost every level imaginable. In this review we discuss step by step the aspects of neutrophil-mediated killing of S. aureus, such as neutrophil activation, migration to the site of infection, bacterial opsonization, phagocytosis, and subsequent neutrophil-mediated killing. After each section we discuss how S. aureus evasion molecules are able to resist the neutrophil attack of these different steps. To date, around 40 immune evasion molecules of S. aureus are known, but its repertoire is still expanding due to the discovery of new evasion proteins and the addition of new functions to already identified evasion proteins. Interestingly, because the different parts of neutrophil attack are redundant, the evasion molecules display redundant functions as well. Knowing how and with which proteins S. aureus is evading the immune system is important in understanding the pathophysiology of this pathogen. This knowledge is crucial for the development of therapeutic approaches that aim to clear staphylococcal infections.
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16
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Nasser A, Moradi M, Jazireian P, Safari H, Alizadeh-Sani M, Pourmand MR, Azimi T. Staphylococcus aureus versus neutrophil: Scrutiny of ancient combat. Microb Pathog 2019; 131:259-269. [PMID: 31002964 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus) is a Gram-positive bacterium that causes many infections and diseases. This pathogen can cause many types of infections such as impetigo, toxic shock syndrome toxin (TSST1), pneumonia, endocarditis, and autoimmune diseases like lupus erythematosus and can infect other healthy individuals. In the pathogenic process, colonization is a main risk factor for invasive diseases. Various factors including the cell wall-associated factors and receptors of the epithelial cells facilitate adhesion and colonization of this pathogen. S. aureus has many enzymes, toxins, and strategies to evade from the immune system either by an enzyme that lyses cellular component or by hiding from the immune system via surface antigens like protein A and second immunoglobulin-binding protein (Sbi). The strategies of this bacterium can be divided into five groups: A: Inhibit neutrophil recruitment B: Inhibit phagocytosis C: Inhibit killing by ROS, D: Neutrophil killing, and E: Resistance to antimicrobial peptide. On the other hand, innate immune system via neutrophils, the most important polymorphonuclear leukocytes, fights against bacterial cells by neutrophil extracellular trap (NET). In this review, we try to explain the role of each factor in immune evasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Nasser
- Microbiology Research center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran; Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Melika Moradi
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Parham Jazireian
- Department of Biology, University Campus 2,University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Hossein Safari
- Health Promotion Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmood Alizadeh-Sani
- Food Safety and Hygiene Division, Environmental Health Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Students Research Committee, Department of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Pourmand
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Taher Azimi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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17
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Raabe CA, Gröper J, Rescher U. Biased perspectives on formyl peptide receptors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2019; 1866:305-316. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2018.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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18
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Buchan KD, Foster SJ, Renshaw SA. Staphylococcus aureus: setting its sights on the human innate immune system. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2019; 165:367-385. [PMID: 30625113 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus has colonized humans for at least 10 000 years, and today inhabits roughly a third of the population. In addition, S. aureus is a major pathogen that is responsible for a significant disease burden, ranging in severity from mild skin and soft-tissue infections to life-threatening endocarditis and necrotizing pneumonia, with treatment often hampered by resistance to commonly available antibiotics. Underpinning its versatility as a pathogen is its ability to evade the innate immune system. S. aureus specifically targets innate immunity to establish and sustain infection, utilizing a large repertoire of virulence factors to do so. Using these factors, S. aureus can resist phagosomal killing, impair complement activity, disrupt cytokine signalling and target phagocytes directly using proteolytic enzymes and cytolytic toxins. Although most of these virulence factors are well characterized, their importance during infection is less clear, as many display species-specific activity against humans or against animal hosts, including cows, horses and chickens. Several staphylococcal virulence factors display species specificity for components of the human innate immune system, with as few as two amino acid changes reducing binding affinity by as much as 100-fold. This represents a major issue for studying their roles during infection, which cannot be examined without the use of humanized infection models. This review summarizes the major factors S. aureus uses to impair the innate immune system, and provides an in-depth look into the host specificity of S. aureus and how this problem is being approached.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Buchan
- 1The Bateson Centre and Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Simon J Foster
- 2Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Stephen A Renshaw
- 1The Bateson Centre and Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
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19
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Zhao Y, van Kessel KPM, de Haas CJC, Rogers MRC, van Strijp JAG, Haas PA. Staphylococcal superantigen-like protein 13 activates neutrophils via formyl peptide receptor 2. Cell Microbiol 2018; 20:e12941. [PMID: 30098280 PMCID: PMC6220968 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcal superantigen-like (SSL) proteins, one of the major virulence factor families produced by Staphylococcus aureus, were previously demonstrated to be immune evasion molecules that interfere with a variety of innate immune defences. However, in contrast to characterised SSLs, which inhibit immune functions, we show that SSL13 is a strong activator of neutrophils via the formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2). Moreover, our data show that SSL13 acts as a chemoattractant and induces degranulation and oxidative burst in neutrophils. As with many other staphylococcal immune evasion proteins, SSL13 shows a high degree of human specificity. SSL13 is not able to efficiently activate mouse neutrophils, hampering in vivo experiments. In conclusion, SSL13 is a neutrophil chemoattractant and activator that acts via FPR2. Therefore, SSL13 is a unique SSL member that does not belong to the immune evasion class but is a pathogen alarming molecule. Our study provides a new concept of SSLs; SSLs not only inhibit host immune processes but also recruit human neutrophils to the site of infection. This new insight allows us to better understand complex interactions between host and S. aureus pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxi Zhao
- Department of Medical MicrobiologyUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Kok P. M. van Kessel
- Department of Medical MicrobiologyUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Carla J. C. de Haas
- Department of Medical MicrobiologyUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Malbert R. C. Rogers
- Department of Medical MicrobiologyUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Jos A. G. van Strijp
- Department of Medical MicrobiologyUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Pieter‐Jan A. Haas
- Department of Medical MicrobiologyUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
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20
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Weiß E, Kretschmer D. Formyl-Peptide Receptors in Infection, Inflammation, and Cancer. Trends Immunol 2018; 39:815-829. [PMID: 30195466 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Formyl-peptide receptors (FPRs) recognize bacterial and mitochondrial formylated peptides as well as endogenous non-formylated peptides and even lipids. FPRs are expressed on various host cell types but most strongly on neutrophils and macrophages. After the discovery of FPRs on leukocytes, it was assumed that these receptors predominantly govern a proinflammatory response resulting in chemotaxis, degranulation, and oxidative burst during infection. However, it is clear that the activation of FPRs has more complex consequences and can also promote the resolution of inflammation. Recent studies have highlighted associations between FPR function and inflammatory conditions, including inflammatory disorders, cancer, and infection. In this review we discuss these recent findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Weiß
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dorothee Kretschmer
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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21
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Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, DeLeo FR. Neutrophils and Bacterial Immune Evasion. J Innate Immun 2018; 10:432-441. [PMID: 29642066 DOI: 10.1159/000487756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are an important component of the innate immune system and provide a front line of defense against bacterial infection. Although most bacteria are killed readily by neutrophils, some bacterial pathogens have the capacity to circumvent destruction by these host leukocytes. The ability of bacterial pathogens to avoid killing by neutrophils often involves multiple attributes or characteristics, including the production of virulence molecules. These molecules are diverse in composition and function, and collectively have the potential to alter or inhibit neutrophil recruitment, phagocytosis, bactericidal activity, and/or apoptosis. Here, we review the ability of bacteria to target these processes.
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22
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Thomsen IP, Liu GY. Targeting fundamental pathways to disrupt Staphylococcus aureus survival: clinical implications of recent discoveries. JCI Insight 2018. [PMID: 29515041 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.98216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus during the past decade along with an impending shortage of effective antistaphylococcal antibiotics have fueled impressive advances in our understanding of how S. aureus overcomes the host environment to establish infection. Backed by recent technologic advances, studies have uncovered elaborate metabolic, nutritional, and virulence strategies deployed by S. aureus to survive the restrictive and hostile environment imposed by the host, leading to a plethora of promising antimicrobial approaches that have potential to remedy the antibiotic resistance crisis. In this Review, we highlight some of the critical and recently elucidated bacterial strategies that are potentially amenable to intervention, discuss their relevance to human diseases, and address the translational challenges posed by current animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac P Thomsen
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, and Vanderbilt Vaccine Research Program, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - George Y Liu
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Research Division of Immunology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
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23
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Exploration of the role of the virulence factor ElrA during Enterococcus faecalis cell infection. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1749. [PMID: 29379180 PMCID: PMC5788860 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20206-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterococcus faecalis, an organism generally not pathogenic for healthy humans, has the potential to cause disease in susceptible hosts. While it seems to be equipped to interact with and circumvent host immune defense, most of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the enterococcal infectious process remain elusive. Here, we investigated the role of the Enterococcal Leucine Rich protein A (ElrA), an internalin-like protein of E. faecalis also known as a virulence factor. ElrA was previously shown to prevent adhesion to macrophages. We show that ElrA does not inhibit the basic phagocytic process, but is able to prevent sensing and migration of macrophages toward E. faecalis. Presence or absence of FHL2, a eukaryotic partner of ElrA, does not affect the ElrA-dependent mechanism preventing macrophage migration. However, we highlight a partial contribution of FHL2 in ElrA-mediated virulence in vivo. Our results indicate that ElrA plays at least a dual role of which anti-phagocytic activity may contribute to dissemination of extracellular E. faecalis during infection.
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24
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Tomasini A, Moreau K, Chicher J, Geissmann T, Vandenesch F, Romby P, Marzi S, Caldelari I. The RNA targetome of Staphylococcus aureus non-coding RNA RsaA: impact on cell surface properties and defense mechanisms. Nucleic Acids Res 2017; 45:6746-6760. [PMID: 28379505 PMCID: PMC5499838 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkx219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The virulon of Staphyloccocus aureus is controlled by intricate connections between transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulators including proteins and small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs). Many of the sRNAs regulate gene expression through base-pairings with mRNAs. However, characterization of the direct sRNA targets in Gram-positive bacteria remained a difficult challenge. Here, we have applied and adapted the MS2-affinity purification approach coupled to RNA sequencing (MAPS) to determine the targetome of RsaA sRNA of S. aureus, known to repress the synthesis of the transcriptional regulator MgrA. Several mRNAs were enriched with RsaA expanding its regulatory network. Besides mgrA, several of these mRNAs encode a family of SsaA-like enzymes involved in peptidoglycan metabolism and the secreted anti-inflammatory FLIPr protein. Using a combination of in vivo and in vitro approaches, these mRNAs were validated as direct RsaA targets. Quantitative differential proteomics of wild-type and mutant strains corroborated the MAPS results. Additionally, it revealed that RsaA indirectly activated the synthesis of surface proteins supporting previous data that RsaA stimulated biofilm formation and favoured chronic infections. All together, this study shows that MAPS could also be easily applied in Gram-positive bacteria for identification of sRNA targetome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Tomasini
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Karen Moreau
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Hospices Civils de Lyon, University of Lyon, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | | | - Thomas Geissmann
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Hospices Civils de Lyon, University of Lyon, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | - François Vandenesch
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Hospices Civils de Lyon, University of Lyon, F-69008, Lyon, France
| | - Pascale Romby
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Stefano Marzi
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Isabelle Caldelari
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
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25
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Weiss E, Hanzelmann D, Fehlhaber B, Klos A, von Loewenich FD, Liese J, Peschel A, Kretschmer D. Formyl-peptide receptor 2 governs leukocyte influx in local Staphylococcus aureus infections. FASEB J 2017; 32:26-36. [PMID: 28855276 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201700441r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Leukocytes express formyl-peptide receptors (FPRs), which sense microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) molecules, leading to leukocyte chemotaxis and activation. We recently demonstrated that phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) peptides from highly pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus are efficient ligands for the human FPR2. How PSM detection by FPR2 impacts on the course of S. aureus infections has remained unknown. We characterized the specificity of mouse FPR2 (mFpr2) using a receptor-transfected cell line, homeobox b8 (Hoxb8), and primary neutrophils isolated from wild-type (WT) or mFpr2-/- mice. The influx of leukocytes into the peritoneum of WT and mFpr2-/- mice was analyzed. We demonstrate that mFpr2 is specifically activated by PSMs in mice, and they represent the first secreted pathogen-derived ligands for the mFpr2. Intraperitoneal infection with S. aureus led to lower numbers of immigrated leukocytes in mFpr2-/- compared with WT mice at 3 h after infection, and this difference was not observed when mice were infected with an S. aureus PSM mutant. Our data support the hypothesis that the mFpr2 is the functional homolog of the human FPR2 and that a mouse infection model represents a suitable model for analyzing the role of PSMs during infection. PSM recognition by mFpr2 shapes leukocyte influx in local infections, the typical infections caused by S. aureus-Weiss, E., Hanzelmann, D., Fehlhaber, B., Klos, A., von Loewenich, F. D., Liese, J., Peschel, A., Kretschmer, D. Formyl-peptide receptor 2 governs leukocyte influx in local Staphylococcus aureus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Weiss
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dennis Hanzelmann
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Beate Fehlhaber
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Epidemiology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andreas Klos
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Epidemiology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Friederike D von Loewenich
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Medical Center, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany; and
| | - Jan Liese
- Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dorothee Kretschmer
- Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany;
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26
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Guerra FE, Borgogna TR, Patel DM, Sward EW, Voyich JM. Epic Immune Battles of History: Neutrophils vs. Staphylococcus aureus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:286. [PMID: 28713774 PMCID: PMC5491559 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in human blood and the first line of defense after bacteria have breached the epithelial barriers. After migration to a site of infection, neutrophils engage and expose invading microorganisms to antimicrobial peptides and proteins, as well as reactive oxygen species, as part of their bactericidal arsenal. Ideally, neutrophils ingest bacteria to prevent damage to surrounding cells and tissues, kill invading microorganisms with antimicrobial mechanisms, undergo programmed cell death to minimize inflammation, and are cleared away by macrophages. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a prevalent Gram-positive bacterium that is a common commensal and causes a wide range of diseases from skin infections to endocarditis. Since its discovery, S. aureus has been a formidable neutrophil foe that has challenged the efficacy of this professional assassin. Indeed, proper clearance of S. aureus by neutrophils is essential to positive infection outcome, and S. aureus has developed mechanisms to evade neutrophil killing. Herein, we will review mechanisms used by S. aureus to modulate and evade neutrophil bactericidal mechanisms including priming, activation, chemotaxis, production of reactive oxygen species, and resolution of infection. We will also highlight how S. aureus uses sensory/regulatory systems to tailor production of virulence factors specifically to the triggering signal, e.g., neutrophils and defensins. To conclude, we will provide an overview of therapeutic approaches that may potentially enhance neutrophil antimicrobial functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fermin E Guerra
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State UniversityBozeman, MT, United States
| | - Timothy R Borgogna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State UniversityBozeman, MT, United States
| | - Delisha M Patel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State UniversityBozeman, MT, United States
| | - Eli W Sward
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State UniversityBozeman, MT, United States
| | - Jovanka M Voyich
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State UniversityBozeman, MT, United States
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Abstract
The microbiota - the collection of microorganisms that live within and on all mammals - provides crucial signals for the development and function of the immune system. Increased availability of technologies that profile microbial communities is facilitating the entry of many immunologists into the evolving field of host-microbiota studies. The microbial communities, their metabolites and components are not only necessary for immune homeostasis, they also influence the susceptibility of the host to many immune-mediated diseases and disorders. In this Review, we discuss technological and computational approaches for investigating the microbiome, as well as recent advances in our understanding of host immunity and microbial mutualism with a focus on specific microbial metabolites, bacterial components and the immune system.
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28
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Ghasemzadeh-Moghaddam H, van Wamel W, van Belkum A, Hamat RA, Neela VK. Differences in humoral immune response between patients with or without nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 36:451-458. [PMID: 27815779 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-016-2817-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The humoral immune response against 43 staphylococcal antigens was compared among hospitalized patients where none of them had any staphylococcal infection on the day of admission with or without nasal Staphylococcus aureus carriage. Fifty-nine carriers and 59 matched non-carriers were studied. The carriers harbored S. aureus of 35 different spa types, including three t037/ST239 methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) (5.1%). Among the 118 patients, 31 acquired S. aureus during hospitalization. In colonized and non-colonized patients, unique patterns of S. aureus-specific immune responses were observed. The mean fluorescence indices (MFIs) of antibodies against 36/43 (83.7%) antigens were seen to be elevated among carriers. The MFI among carriers with acquisition was significantly higher for staphylococcal superantigen-like protein 5 (SSL5, p = 0.028) when compared to carriers without acquisition. High antibody levels against staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) among carriers illustrate its role as a superantigen in both infection and colonization. We also report a dynamic immune response in S. aureus-carrying patients against the recently reported formyl peptide receptor-like inhibitory (FLIPr)-like protein. In the current study, the dynamics of antibodies against staphylococcal antigens among carrier patients seem quite similar to non-carrier patients. To better understand the dynamic immunogenicity during S. aureus infection and colonization, artificial colonization studies and investigation of the changes in the levels of antibodies against other staphylococcal antigens are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ghasemzadeh-Moghaddam
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.,Education Development Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran
| | - W van Wamel
- Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A van Belkum
- Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Scientific Office, bioMérieux, La Balme-les-Grottes, France
| | - R A Hamat
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - V K Neela
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
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29
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Dahlgren C, Gabl M, Holdfeldt A, Winther M, Forsman H. Basic characteristics of the neutrophil receptors that recognize formylated peptides, a danger-associated molecular pattern generated by bacteria and mitochondria. Biochem Pharmacol 2016; 114:22-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2016.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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30
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Dayan GH, Mohamed N, Scully IL, Cooper D, Begier E, Eiden J, Jansen KU, Gurtman A, Anderson AS. Staphylococcus aureus: the current state of disease, pathophysiology and strategies for prevention. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 15:1373-1392. [PMID: 27118628 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2016.1179583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is both a commensal organism and also an important opportunistic human pathogen, causing a variety of community and hospital-associated pathologies, such as bacteremia-sepsis, endocarditis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, arthritis and skin diseases. The resurgence of S. aureus during the last decade in many settings has been facilitated not only by bacterial antibiotic resistance mechanisms but also by the emergence of new S. aureus clonal types with increased expression of virulence factors and the capacity to neutralize the host immune response. Prevention of the spread of S. aureus infection relies on the use of contact precautions and adequate procedures for infection control that so far have not been fully effective. Prevention using a prophylactic vaccine would complement these processes, having the potential to bring additional, significant progress toward decreasing invasive disease due to S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo H Dayan
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
| | - Naglaa Mohamed
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
| | - Ingrid L Scully
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
| | - David Cooper
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
| | - Elizabeth Begier
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
| | - Joseph Eiden
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
| | - Kathrin U Jansen
- a Pfizer Vaccine Research and Development , Pearl River , NY , USA
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31
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do Vale A, Cabanes D, Sousa S. Bacterial Toxins as Pathogen Weapons Against Phagocytes. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:42. [PMID: 26870008 PMCID: PMC4734073 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial toxins are virulence factors that manipulate host cell functions and take over the control of vital processes of living organisms to favor microbial infection. Some toxins directly target innate immune cells, thereby annihilating a major branch of the host immune response. In this review we will focus on bacterial toxins that act from the extracellular milieu and hinder the function of macrophages and neutrophils. In particular, we will concentrate on toxins from Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that manipulate cell signaling or induce cell death by either imposing direct damage to the host cells cytoplasmic membrane or enzymatically modifying key eukaryotic targets. Outcomes regarding pathogen dissemination, host damage and disease progression will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana do Vale
- Host Interaction and Response, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Group of Fish Immunology and Vaccinology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - Didier Cabanes
- Host Interaction and Response, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - Sandra Sousa
- Host Interaction and Response, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
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32
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Thammavongsa V, Kim HK, Missiakas D, Schneewind O. Staphylococcal manipulation of host immune responses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2015; 13:529-43. [PMID: 26272408 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 381] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterial commensal of the human nares and skin, is a frequent cause of soft tissue and bloodstream infections. A hallmark of staphylococcal infections is their frequent recurrence, even when treated with antibiotics and surgical intervention, which demonstrates the bacterium's ability to manipulate innate and adaptive immune responses. In this Review, we highlight how S. aureus virulence factors inhibit complement activation, block and destroy phagocytic cells and modify host B cell and T cell responses, and we discuss how these insights might be useful for the development of novel therapies against infections with antibiotic resistant strains such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vilasack Thammavongsa
- 1] Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA. [2] Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, 755 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591, USA
| | - Hwan Keun Kim
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Dominique Missiakas
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Olaf Schneewind
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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33
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Stapels DAC, Kuipers A, von Köckritz-Blickwede M, Ruyken M, Tromp AT, Horsburgh MJ, de Haas CJC, van Strijp JAG, van Kessel KPM, Rooijakkers SHM. Staphylococcus aureus protects its immune-evasion proteins against degradation by neutrophil serine proteases. Cell Microbiol 2015; 18:536-45. [PMID: 26418545 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils store large quantities of neutrophil serine proteases (NSPs) that contribute, via multiple mechanisms, to antibacterial immune defences. Even though neutrophils are indispensable in fighting Staphylococcus aureus infections, the importance of NSPs in anti-staphylococcal defence is yet unknown. However, the fact that S. aureus produces three highly specific inhibitors for NSPs [the extracellular adherence proteins (EAPs) Eap, EapH1 and EapH2], suggests that these proteases are important for host defences against this bacterium. In this study we demonstrate that NSPs can inactivate secreted virulence factors of S. aureus and that EAP proteins function to prevent this degradation. Specifically, we find that a large group of S. aureus immune-evasion proteins is vulnerable to proteolytic inactivation by NSPs. In most cases, NSP cleavage leads to functional inactivation of virulence proteins. Interestingly, proteins with similar immune-escape functions appeared to have differential cleavage sensitivity towards NSPs. Using targeted mutagenesis and complementation analyses in S. aureus, we demonstrate that all EAP proteins can protect other virulence factors from NSP degradation in complex bacterial supernatants. These findings show that NSPs inactivate S. aureus virulence factors. Moreover, the protection by EAP proteins can explain why this antibacterial function of NSPs was masked in previous studies. Furthermore, our results indicate that therapeutic inactivation of EAP proteins can help to restore the natural host immune defences against S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A C Stapels
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - A Kuipers
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - M von Köckritz-Blickwede
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - M Ruyken
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - A T Tromp
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - M J Horsburgh
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - C J C de Haas
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - J A G van Strijp
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - K P M van Kessel
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - S H M Rooijakkers
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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34
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Wladyka B, Piejko M, Bzowska M, Pieta P, Krzysik M, Mazurek Ł, Guevara-Lora I, Bukowski M, Sabat AJ, Friedrich AW, Bonar E, Międzobrodzki J, Dubin A, Mak P. A peptide factor secreted by Staphylococcus pseudintermedius exhibits properties of both bacteriocins and virulence factors. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14569. [PMID: 26411997 PMCID: PMC4585962 DOI: 10.1038/srep14569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a common commensal bacterium colonizing the skin and mucosal surfaces of household animals. However, it has recently emerged as a dangerous opportunistic pathogen, comparable to S. aureus for humans. The epidemiological situation is further complicated by the increasing number of methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius infections and evidence of gene transmission driving antibiotic resistance between staphylococci colonizing human and zoonotic hosts. In the present study, we describe a unique peptide, BacSp222, that possesses features characteristic of both bacteriocins and virulence factors. BacSp222 is secreted in high quantities by S. pseudintermedius strain 222 isolated from dog skin lesions. This linear, fifty-amino-acid highly cationic peptide is plasmid-encoded and does not exhibit significant sequence similarities to any other known peptides or proteins. BacSp222 kills gram-positive bacteria (at doses ranging from 0.1 to several micromol/l) but also demonstrates significant cytotoxic activities towards eukaryotic cells at slightly higher concentrations. Moreover, at nanomolar concentrations, the peptide also possesses modulatory properties, efficiently enhancing interferon gamma-induced nitric oxide release in murine macrophage-like cell lines. BacSp222 appears to be one of the first examples of multifunctional peptides that breaks the convention of splitting bacteriocins and virulence factors into two unrelated groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedykt Wladyka
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marcin Piejko
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,3rd Department of General Surgery, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-008 Krakow, Poland
| | - Monika Bzowska
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Piotr Pieta
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Krzysik
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Łukasz Mazurek
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Ibeth Guevara-Lora
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Michał Bukowski
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Artur J Sabat
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander W Friedrich
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Emilia Bonar
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Jacek Międzobrodzki
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Adam Dubin
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Paweł Mak
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
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35
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Spaan AN, Schiepers A, de Haas CJC, van Hooijdonk DDJJ, Badiou C, Contamin H, Vandenesch F, Lina G, Gerard NP, Gerard C, van Kessel KPM, Henry T, van Strijp JAG. Differential Interaction of the Staphylococcal Toxins Panton-Valentine Leukocidin and γ-Hemolysin CB with Human C5a Receptors. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:1034-43. [PMID: 26091719 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is well adapted to the human host. Evasion of the host phagocyte response is critical for successful infection. The staphylococcal bicomponent pore-forming toxins Panton-Valentine leukocidin LukSF-PV (PVL) and γ-hemolysin CB (HlgCB) target human phagocytes through interaction with the complement receptors C5aR1 and C5aR2. Currently, the apparent redundancy of both toxins cannot be adequately addressed in experimental models of infection because mice are resistant to PVL and HlgCB. The molecular basis for species specificity of the two toxins in animal models is not completely understood. We show that PVL and HlgCB feature distinct activity toward neutrophils of different mammalian species, where activity of PVL is found to be restricted to fewer species than that of HlgCB. Overexpression of various mammalian C5a receptors in HEK cells confirms that cytotoxicity toward neutrophils is driven by species-specific interactions of the toxins with C5aR1. By taking advantage of the species-specific engagement of the toxins with their receptors, we demonstrate that PVL and HlgCB differentially interact with human C5aR1 and C5aR2. In addition, binding studies illustrate that different parts of the receptor are involved in the initial binding of the toxin and the subsequent formation of lytic pores. These findings allow a better understanding of the molecular mechanism of pore formation. Finally, we show that the toxicity of PVL, but not of HlgCB, is neutralized by various C5aR1 antagonists. This study offers directions for the development of improved preclinical models for infection, as well as for the design of drugs antagonizing leukocidin toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- András N Spaan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands; Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon 1 and Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, Unité 1111, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Ariën Schiepers
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Carla J C de Haas
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Davy D J J van Hooijdonk
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Cédric Badiou
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon 1 and Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, Unité 1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5308, 69007 Lyon, France
| | | | - François Vandenesch
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon 1 and Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, Unité 1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5308, 69007 Lyon, France; Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Gérard Lina
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon 1 and Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, Unité 1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5308, 69007 Lyon, France; Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Norma P Gerard
- Ina Sue Perlmutter Laboratory, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Craig Gerard
- Ina Sue Perlmutter Laboratory, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Kok P M van Kessel
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas Henry
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon 1 and Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, Unité 1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5308, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Jos A G van Strijp
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands;
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36
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Dorward DA, Lucas CD, Chapman GB, Haslett C, Dhaliwal K, Rossi AG. The role of formylated peptides and formyl peptide receptor 1 in governing neutrophil function during acute inflammation. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2015; 185:1172-84. [PMID: 25791526 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2015.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 01/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Neutrophil migration to sites of inflammation and the subsequent execution of multiple functions are designed to contain and kill invading pathogens. These highly regulated and orchestrated processes are controlled by interactions between numerous receptors and their cognate ligands. Unraveling and identifying those that are central to inflammatory processes may represent novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of neutrophil-dominant inflammatory disorders in which dysregulated neutrophil recruitment, function, and elimination serve to potentiate rather than resolve an initial inflammatory insult. The first G protein-coupled receptor to be described on human neutrophils, formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1), is one such receptor that plays a significant role in the execution of these functions through multiple intracellular signaling pathways. Recent work has highlighted important observations with regard to both receptor function and the importance and functional relevance of FPR1 in the pathogenesis of a range of both sterile and infective inflammatory conditions. In this review, we explore the multiple components of neutrophil migration and function in both health and disease, with a focus on the role of FPR1 in these processes. The current understanding of FPR1 structure, function, and signaling is examined, alongside discussion of the potential importance of FPR1 in inflammatory diseases suggesting that FPR1 is a key regulator of the inflammatory environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Dorward
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Christopher D Lucas
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin B Chapman
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Haslett
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin Dhaliwal
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Adriano G Rossi
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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37
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Kretschmer D, Rautenberg M, Linke D, Peschel A. Peptide length and folding state govern the capacity of staphylococcal β-type phenol-soluble modulins to activate human formyl-peptide receptors 1 or 2. J Leukoc Biol 2015; 97:689-97. [PMID: 25724390 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.2a0514-275r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Most staphylococci produce short α-type PSMs and about twice as long β-type PSMs that are potent leukocyte attractants and toxins. PSMs are usually secreted with the N-terminal formyl group but are only weak agonists for the leukocyte FPR1. Instead, the FPR1-related FPR2 senses PSMs efficiently and is crucial for leukocyte recruitment in infection. Which structural features distinguish FPR1 from FPR2 ligands has remained elusive. To analyze which peptide properties may govern the capacities of β-type PSMs to activate FPRs, full-length and truncated variants of such peptides from Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Staphylococcus lugdunensis were synthesized. FPR2 activation was observed even for short N- or C-terminal β-type PSM variants once they were longer than 18 aa, and this activity increased with length. In contrast, the shortest tested peptides were potent FPR1 agonists, and this property declined with increasing peptide length. Whereas full-length β-type PSMs formed α-helices and exhibited no FPR1-specific activity, the truncated peptides had less-stable secondary structures, were weak agonists for FPR1, and required N-terminal formyl-methionine residues to be FPR2 agonists. Together, these data suggest that FPR1 and FPR2 have opposed ligand preferences. Short, flexible PSM structures may favor FPR1 but not FPR2 activation, whereas longer peptides with α-helical, amphipathic properties are strong FPR2 but only weak FPR1 agonists. These findings should help to unravel the ligand specificities of 2 critical human PRRs, and they may be important for new, anti-infective and anti-inflammatory strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee Kretschmer
- *Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Cellular and Molecular Microbiology Division, University of Tübingen, Germany; and Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Department I, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Maren Rautenberg
- *Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Cellular and Molecular Microbiology Division, University of Tübingen, Germany; and Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Department I, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Linke
- *Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Cellular and Molecular Microbiology Division, University of Tübingen, Germany; and Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Department I, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Peschel
- *Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, Cellular and Molecular Microbiology Division, University of Tübingen, Germany; and Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Department I, Tübingen, Germany
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Koymans KJ, Vrieling M, Gorham RD, van Strijp JAG. Staphylococcal Immune Evasion Proteins: Structure, Function, and Host Adaptation. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 409:441-489. [PMID: 26919864 DOI: 10.1007/82_2015_5017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a successful human and animal pathogen. Its pathogenicity is linked to its ability to secrete a large amount of virulence factors. These secreted proteins interfere with many critical components of the immune system, both innate and adaptive, and hamper proper immune functioning. In recent years, numerous studies have been conducted in order to understand the molecular mechanism underlying the interaction of evasion molecules with the host immune system. Structural studies have fundamentally contributed to our understanding of the mechanisms of action of the individual factors. Furthermore, such studies revealed one of the most striking characteristics of the secreted immune evasion molecules: their conserved structure. Despite high-sequence variability, most immune evasion molecules belong to a small number of structural categories. Another remarkable characteristic is that S. aureus carries most of these virulence factors on mobile genetic elements (MGE) or ex-MGE in its accessory genome. Coevolution of pathogen and host has resulted in immune evasion molecules with a highly host-specific function and prevalence. In this review, we explore how these shared structures and genomic locations relate to function and host specificity. This is discussed in the context of therapeutic options for these immune evasion molecules in infectious as well as in inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten J Koymans
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, G04-614, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Manouk Vrieling
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, G04-614, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald D Gorham
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, G04-614, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jos A G van Strijp
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, G04-614, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Fevre C, Bestebroer J, Mebius MM, de Haas CJC, van Strijp JAG, Fitzgerald JR, Haas PJA. Staphylococcus aureus proteins SSL6 and SElX interact with neutrophil receptors as identified using secretome phage display. Cell Microbiol 2014; 16:1646-65. [PMID: 24840181 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In order to cause colonization and invasive disease, pathogenic bacteria secrete proteins that modulate host immune defences. Identification and characterization of these proteins leads to a better understanding of the pathological processes underlying infectious and inflammatory diseases and is essential in the development of new strategies for their prevention and treatment. Current techniques to functionally characterize these proteins are laborious and inefficient. Here we describe a high-throughput functional selection strategy using phage display in order to identify immune evasion proteins. Using this technique we identified two previously uncharacterized proteins secreted by Staphylococcus aureus, SElX and SSL6 that bind to neutrophil surface receptors. SElX binds PSGL-1 on neutrophils and thereby inhibits the interaction between PSGL-1 and P-selectin, a crucial step in the recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection. SSL6 is the first bacterial protein identified that binds CD47, a widely expressed cell surface protein recently described as an interesting target in anti-cancer therapy. Our findings provide new insights into the pathogenesis of S. aureus infections and support phage display as an efficient method to identify bacterial secretome proteins interacting with humoral or cellular immune components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Fevre
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, PO G04.614, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Choi JH, Seo HS, Lim SY, Park K. Cutaneous Immune Defenses Against Staphylococcus aureus Infections. J Lifestyle Med 2014; 4:39-46. [PMID: 26064853 PMCID: PMC4390763 DOI: 10.15280/jlm.2014.4.1.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a virulent bacterium that abundantly colonizes inflammatory skin diseases. Since S. aureus infections occur in an impaired skin barrier, it is important to understand the protective mechanism through cutaneous immune responses against S. aureus infections and the interaction with Staphylococcal virulence factors. In this review, we summarize not only the pathogenesis and key elements of S. aureus skin infections, but also the cutaneous immune system against its infections and colonization. The information obtained from this area may provide the groundwork for further immunomodulatory therapies or vaccination strategies to prevent S. aureus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hae Choi
- Research Division for Biotechnology, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, Korea
| | - Ho Seong Seo
- Research Division for Biotechnology, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, Korea
| | - Sang Young Lim
- Research Division for Biotechnology, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, Korea
| | - Kyungho Park
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, and Northern California Institute for Research and Education, San Francisco, CA, USA
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41
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Otto M. Staphylococcus aureus toxins. Curr Opin Microbiol 2014; 17:32-7. [PMID: 24581690 PMCID: PMC3942668 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 366] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Revised: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a dangerous pathogen that causes a variety of severe diseases. The virulence of S. aureus is defined by a large repertoire of virulence factors, among which secreted toxins play a preeminent role. Many S. aureus toxins damage biological membranes, leading to cell death. In particular, S. aureus produces potent hemolysins and leukotoxins. Among the latter, some were recently identified to lyse neutrophils after ingestion, representing an especially powerful weapon against bacterial elimination by innate host defense. Furthermore, S. aureus secretes many factors that inhibit the complement cascade or prevent recognition by host defenses. Several further toxins add to this multi-faceted program of S. aureus to evade elimination in the host. This review will give an overview over S. aureus toxins focusing on recent advances in our understanding of how leukotoxins work in receptor-mediated or receptor-independent fashions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Otto
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Spaan AN, Henry T, van Rooijen WJM, Perret M, Badiou C, Aerts PC, Kemmink J, de Haas CJC, van Kessel KPM, Vandenesch F, Lina G, van Strijp JAG. The staphylococcal toxin Panton-Valentine Leukocidin targets human C5a receptors. Cell Host Microbe 2013; 13:584-594. [PMID: 23684309 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2013.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Revised: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) is a staphylococcal bicomponent pore-forming toxin linked to severe invasive infections. Target-cell and species specificity of PVL are poorly understood, and the mechanism of action of this toxin in Staphylococcus aureus virulence is controversial. Here, we identify the human complement receptors C5aR and C5L2 as host targets of PVL, mediating both toxin binding and cytotoxicity. Expression and interspecies variations of the C5aR determine cell and species specificity of PVL. The C5aR binding PVL component, LukS-PV, is a potent inhibitor of C5a-induced immune cell activation. These findings provide insight into leukocidin function and staphylococcal virulence and offer directions for future investigations into individual susceptibility to severe staphylococcal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- András N Spaan
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Henry
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, LabEx Ecofect, Université Lyon 1, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; CNRS, UMR5308, 69007 Lyon, France
| | | | - Magali Perret
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, LabEx Ecofect, Université Lyon 1, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; CNRS, UMR5308, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Cédric Badiou
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, LabEx Ecofect, Université Lyon 1, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; CNRS, UMR5308, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Piet C Aerts
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Kemmink
- Medicinal Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Utrecht University, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carla J C de Haas
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Kok P M van Kessel
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - François Vandenesch
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, LabEx Ecofect, Université Lyon 1, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; CNRS, UMR5308, 69007 Lyon, France; Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Gérard Lina
- CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, LabEx Ecofect, Université Lyon 1, 69007 Lyon, France; Inserm, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France; Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France; CNRS, UMR5308, 69007 Lyon, France; Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Jos A G van Strijp
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen and a leading cause of death worldwide. Phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) have recently emerged as a novel toxin family defining the virulence potential of highly aggressive S. aureus isolates. PSMs have multiple roles in staphylococcal pathogenesis, causing lysis of red and white blood cells, stimulating inflammatory responses and contributing to biofilm development and the dissemination of biofilm-associated infections. Moreover, the pronounced capacity of PSMs to kill human neutrophils after phagocytosis might explain failures in the development of anti-staphylococcal vaccines. Here, we discuss recent progress made in our understanding of the biochemical and genetic properties of PSMs and their role in S. aureus pathogenesis, and suggest potential avenues to target PSMs for the development of anti-staphylococcal drugs.
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Forsman H, Bylund J, Oprea TI, Karlsson A, Boulay F, Rabiet MJ, Dahlgren C. The leukocyte chemotactic receptor FPR2, but not the closely related FPR1, is sensitive to cell-penetrating pepducins with amino acid sequences descending from the third intracellular receptor loop. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2013; 1833:1914-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Surewaard BGJ, van Strijp JAG, Nijland R. Studying interactions of Staphylococcus aureus with neutrophils by flow cytometry and time lapse microscopy. J Vis Exp 2013:e50788. [PMID: 23893048 DOI: 10.3791/50788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
We present methods to study the effect of phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) and other toxins produced and secreted by Staphylococcus aureus on neutrophils. To study the effects of the PSMs on neutrophils we isolate fresh neutrophils using density gradient centrifugation. These neutrophils are loaded with a dye that fluoresces upon calcium mobilization. The activation of neutrophils by PSMs initiates a rapid and transient increase in the free intracellular calcium concentration. In a flow cytometry experiment this rapid mobilization can be measured by monitoring the fluorescence of a pre-loaded dye that reacts to the increased concentration of free Ca(2+). Using this method we can determine the PSM concentration necessary to activate the neutrophil, and measure the effects of specific and general inhibitors of the neutrophil activation. To investigate the expression of the PSMs in the intracellular space, we have constructed reporter fusions of the promoter of the PSMα operon to GFP. When these reporter strains of S. aureus are phagocytosed by neutrophils, the induction of expression can be observed using fluorescence microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas G J Surewaard
- Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Spaan AN, Surewaard BGJ, Nijland R, van Strijp JAG. Neutrophils versus Staphylococcus aureus: a biological tug of war. Annu Rev Microbiol 2013; 67:629-50. [PMID: 23834243 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-092412-155746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is well adapted to its human host. Neutrophil-mediated killing is a crucial defense system against S. aureus; however, the pathogen has evolved many strategies to resist killing. We first describe the discrete steps of neutrophil activation and migration to the site of infection and the killing of microbes by neutrophils in general. We then highlight the different approaches utilized by S. aureus to resist the different steps of neutrophil attack. Various molecules are discussed in their evolutionary context. Most of the molecules secreted by S. aureus to combat neutrophil attacks at the site of infection show clear human specificity. Many elements of human neutrophil defenses appear redundant, and so the evasion strategies of staphylococci display redundant functions as well. All efforts by S. aureus to resist neutrophil-mediated killing stress the importance of these mechanisms in the pathophysiology of staphylococcal diseases. However, the highly human-specific nature of most host-pathogen interactions hinders the in vivo establishment of their contribution to staphylococcal pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- András N Spaan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands; , , ,
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McCarthy AJ, Lindsay JA. Staphylococcus aureus innate immune evasion is lineage-specific: a bioinfomatics study. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2013; 19:7-14. [PMID: 23792184 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen, and is targeted by the host innate immune system. In response, S. aureus genomes encode dozens of secreted proteins that inhibit complement, chemotaxis and neutrophil activation resulting in successful evasion of innate immune responses. These proteins include immune evasion cluster proteins (IEC; Chp, Sak, Scn), staphylococcal superantigen-like proteins (SSLs), phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) and several leukocidins. Biochemical studies have indicated that genetic variants of these proteins can have unique functions. To ascertain the scale of genetic variation in secreted immune evasion proteins, whole genome sequences of 88 S. aureus isolates, representing 25 clonal complex (CC) lineages, in the public domain were analysed across 43 genes encoding 38 secreted innate immune evasion protein complexes. Twenty-three genes were variable, with between 2 and 15 variants, and the variants had lineage-specific distributions. They include genes encoding Eap, Ecb, Efb, Flipr/Flipr-like, Hla, Hld, Hlg, Sbi, Scin-B/C and 13 SSLs. Most of these protein complexes inhibit complement, chemotaxis and neutrophil activation suggesting that isolates from each S. aureus lineage respond to the innate immune system differently. In contrast, protein complexes that lyse neutrophils (LukSF-PVL, LukMF, LukED and PSMs) were highly conserved, but can be carried on mobile genetic elements (MGEs). MGEs also encode proteins with narrow host-specificities arguing that their acquisition has important roles in host/environmental adaptation. In conclusion, this data suggests that each lineage of S. aureus evades host immune responses differently, and that isolates can adapt to new host environments by acquiring MGEs and the immune evasion protein complexes that they encode. Cocktail therapeutics that targets multiple variant proteins may be the most appropriate strategy for controlling S. aureus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J McCarthy
- Division of Clinical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, UK.
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Stemerding AM, Köhl J, Pandey MK, Kuipers A, Leusen JH, Boross P, Nederend M, Vidarsson G, Weersink AYL, van de Winkel JGJ, van Kessel KPM, van Strijp JAG. Staphylococcus aureusFormyl Peptide Receptor–like 1 Inhibitor (FLIPr) and Its Homologue FLIPr-like Are Potent FcγR Antagonists That Inhibit IgG-Mediated Effector Functions. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:353-62. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Distinct signaling cascades elicited by different formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) agonists. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:7193-230. [PMID: 23549262 PMCID: PMC3645683 DOI: 10.3390/ijms14047193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) is a remarkably versatile transmembrane protein belonging to the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. FPR2 is activated by an array of ligands, which include structurally unrelated lipids and peptide/proteins agonists, resulting in different intracellular responses in a ligand-specific fashion. In addition to the anti-inflammatory lipid, lipoxin A4, several other endogenous agonists also bind FPR2, including serum amyloid A, glucocorticoid-induced annexin 1, urokinase and its receptor, suggesting that the activation of FPR2 may result in potent pro- or anti-inflammatory responses. Other endogenous ligands, also present in biological samples, include resolvins, amyloidogenic proteins, such as beta amyloid (Aβ)-42 and prion protein (Prp)106–126, the neuroprotective peptide, humanin, antibacterial peptides, annexin 1-derived peptides, chemokine variants, the neuropeptides, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP)-27, and mitochondrial peptides. Upon activation, intracellular domains of FPR2 mediate signaling to G-proteins, which trigger several agonist-dependent signal transduction pathways, including activation of phospholipase C (PLC), protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms, the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) pathway, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, p38MAPK, as well as the phosphorylation of cytosolic tyrosine kinases, tyrosine kinase receptor transactivation, phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of regulatory transcriptional factors, release of calcium and production of oxidants. FPR2 is an attractive therapeutic target, because of its involvement in a range of normal physiological processes and pathological diseases. Here, we review and discuss the most significant findings on the intracellular pathways and on the cross-communication between FPR2 and tyrosine kinase receptors triggered by different FPR2 agonists.
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Characterization of the humoral immune response during Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and global gene expression by Staphylococcus aureus in human blood. PLoS One 2013; 8:e53391. [PMID: 23308212 PMCID: PMC3538780 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Attempts to develop an efficient anti-staphylococcal vaccine in humans have so far been unsuccessful. Therefore, more knowledge of the antigens that are expressed by Staphylococcus aureus in human blood and induce an immune response in patients is required. In this study we further characterize the serial levels of IgG and IgA antibodies against 56 staphylococcal antigens in multiple serum samples of 21 patients with a S. aureus bacteremia, compare peak IgG levels between patients and 30 non-infected controls, and analyze the expression of 3626 genes by two genetically distinct isolates in human blood. The serum antibody levels were measured using a bead-based flow cytometry technique (xMAP®, Luminex corporation). Gene expression levels were analyzed using a microarray (BµG@s microarray). The initial levels and time taken to reach peak IgG and IgA antibody levels were heterogeneous in bacteremia patients. The antigen SA0688 was associated with the highest median initial-to-peak antibody fold-increase for IgG (5.05-fold) and the second highest increase for IgA (2.07-fold). Peak IgG levels against 27 antigens, including the antigen SA0688, were significantly elevated in bacteremia patients versus controls (P≤0.05). Expression of diverse genes, including SA0688, was ubiquitously high in both isolates at all time points during incubation in blood. However, only a limited number of genes were specifically up- or downregulated in both isolates when cultured in blood, compared to the start of incubation in blood or during incubation in BHI broth. In conclusion, most staphylococcal antigens tested in this study, including many known virulence factors, do not induce uniform increases in the antibody levels in bacteremia patients. In addition, the expression of these antigens by S. aureus is not significantly altered by incubation in human blood over time. One immunogenic and ubiquitously expressed antigen is the putative iron-regulated ABC transporter SA0688.
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