Sustained exogenous expression of therapeutic levels of IFN-gamma ameliorates atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice via Th1 polarization

Novel insights: crosstalk with non-puerperal mastitis and immunity

The two primary types of non-puerperal mastitis (NPM) are granulomatous lobular mastitis (GLM) and plasma cell mastitis (PCM). Existing research indicates that immune inflammatory response is considered to be the core of the pathogenesis of GLM and PCM, and both innate and adaptive immune responses play an important role in the pathophysiology of PCM and GLM. However, the regulatory balance between various immune cells in these diseases is still unclear. Consequently, we present a comprehensive summary of the immune-related variables and recent advances in GLM and PCM.

Exercise-induced modulation of Interferon-signature: a therapeutic route toward management of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystemic autoimmune disorder characterized by flares-ups/remissions with a complex clinical picture related to disease severity and organ/tissue injury, which, if left untreated, may result in permanent damage. Enhanced fatigue and pain perception, worsened quality of life (QoL) and outcome are constant, albeit symptoms may differ. An aberrant SLE immunoprofiling, note as "interferon (IFN)α-signature", is acknowledged to break immunotolerance. Recently, a deregulated "IFNγ-signature" is suggested to silently precede/trigger IFNα profile before clinical manifestations. IFNα- and IFNγ-over-signaling merge in cytokine/chemokine overexpression exacerbating autoimmunity. Remission achievement and QoL improvement are the main goals. The current therapy (i.e., corticosteroids, immunosuppressants) aims to downregulate immune over-response. Exercise could be a safe treatment due to its ever-emerging ability to shape and re-balance immune system without harmful side-effects; in addition, it improves cardiorespiratory capacity and musculoskeletal strength/power, usually impaired in SLE. Nevertheless, exercise is not yet included in SLE care plans. Furthermore, due to the fear to worsening pain/fatigue, SLE subjects experience kinesiophobia and sedentary lifestyle, worsening physical health. Training SLE patients to exercise is mandatory to fight inactive behavior and ameliorate health. This review aims to focus the attention on the role of exercise as a non-pharmacological therapy in SLE, considering its ability to mitigate IFN-signature and rebalance (auto)immune response. To this purpose, the significance of IFNα- and IFNγ-signaling in SLE etiopathogenesis will be addressed first and discussed thereafter as biotarget of exercise. Comments are addressed on the need to make aware all SLE care professional figures to promote exercise for health patients.

Antiallergic Effects of Callerya atropurpurea Extract In Vitro and in an In Vivo Atopic Dermatitis Model

(1) Background: Callerya atropurpurea is found in Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. Although the anti-inflammatory action of C. atropurpurea has been investigated, the functions of this plant in allergic responses are not understood. Here, we explored the antiallergic mechanism of C. atropurpurea ethanol extract (Ca-EE) using in vitro assays and an in vivo atopic model. (2) Methods: The constituents of Ca-EE were analyzed using GC/MS. Inhibition of lipoxygenase and β-hexosaminidase activity was examined, and the expression of inflammatory genes was measured by quantitative real-time PCR. The regulatory roles of Ca-EE in IgE/FcεRI signaling were examined by Western blotting. The DNCB-induced atopic dermatitis mouse model was performed with histological analysis. (3) Results: Ca-EE comprised cis-raphasatin, lupeol, some sugars, and fatty acids. In RBL-2H3 cells, treatment with Ca-EE significantly reduced the activities of lipoxygenase and β-hexosaminidase, as well as cytokine gene expression. IgE-mediated signaling was downregulated by blocking Lyn kinases. Moreover, Ca-EE effectively inhibited allergic symptoms in the DNCB-induced atopic dermatitis model without toxicity. (4) Conclusions: Ca-EE displayed antiallergic activities through regulating IgE/Lyn signaling in RBL-2H3 cells and a contact dermatitis model. These results indicate that Ca-EE could be effective for allergic disease treatment.

Modelling of indirect cell-cell interaction networks mediated by IFNγ/IL-4 cytokine involved in atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is an immune-driven inflammatory skin disease that is known to have a significantly high life-time prevalence in the human population. T-helper (Th) immune cells play a key role in the pathogenesis of AD which is marked by defects in the skin barrier function along with a significant increase in the population of either Th1 or Th2 sub-types of Th cells. The progression of AD from the acute to chronic phase is still poorly understood, and here we explore the mechanism of this transition through the study of a mathematical model for indirect cell-cell interactions among Th and skin cells via the secreted cytokines IFNγ and IL-4, both known to have therapeutic potential. An increase in the level of cytokine IFN γ can catalyse the transition of AD from an acute to a chronic stage, while an increase in the level of cytokine IL-4 has the reverse effect. In our model, the transition of AD from the acute to chronic stage and vice versa can be abrupt (switch-like) with hysteresis: this bistable behaviour can potentially be used to keep AD in the acute phase since therapy based on suppression of IFNγ can retard the transition to the chronic phase.

IFN-γ, should not be ignored in SLE

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a typical autoimmune disease with a complex pathogenesis and genetic predisposition. With continued understanding of this disease, it was found that SLE is related to the interferon gene signature. Most studies have emphasized the important role of IFN-α in SLE, but our previous study suggested a nonnegligible role of IFN-γ in SLE. Some scholars previously found that IFN-γ is abnormally elevated as early as before the classification of SLE and before the emergence of autoantibodies and IFN-α. Due to the large overlap between IFN-α and IFN-γ, SLE is mostly characterized by expression of the IFN-α gene after onset. Therefore, the role of IFN-γ in SLE may be underestimated. This article mainly reviews the role of IFN-γ in SLE and focuses on the nonnegligible role of IFN-γ in SLE to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the disease.

Expression of LINC00847 in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of Children with Asthma and Its Prediction between Asthma Exacerbation and Remission

Objective. Asthma is defined as a heterogeneous disease that is usually characterized by chronic airway inflammation. Long noncoding RNAs play important roles in various biological processes including inflammation. To know more about the relationships between lncRNAs and asthma, we sought to the role of LINC00847 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of children with asthma exacerbation or asthma remission. Methods. Microarray analysis was performed on GSE143192 and GSE165934 datasets to screen differentially expressed lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) in human PBMCs between asthma patients and normal controls. LINC00847 was selected from DElncRNAs in human PBMCs between asthma patients and normal controls for further investigation. The expression levels of LINC00847 were quantified in PBMCs collected from 54 children with asthma exacerbation, 54 children with asthma remission, and 54 healthy children by real-time qPCR. The forced expiratory volume in the first second in percent predicted values (FEV1%), ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 second to forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC), and peak expiratory flow rate (PEF%) were tested for evaluation of lung function. The concentration of immunoglobulin E (IgE) and eosinophil count was examined. The serum levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and IL-17A were determined by the ELISA method. Results. The expression level of LINC00847 in PBMCs of asthma exacerbation children was remarkably higher than that in PBMCs of asthma remission children and healthy children ( $p<0.001$ ); the expression level of LINC00847 in PBMCs of asthma remission children was notably higher than that in PBMCs of healthy children ( $p<0.001$ ). Pearson correlation analysis revealed that the expression levels of LINC00847 in PBMCs of asthma children were negatively correlated with FEV1% (r = −0.489), FEV1/FVC (r = −0.436), PEF% (r = −0.626), and IFN-γ level (r = −0.614) of asthma children, but positively correlated with IgE concentration (r = 0.680), eosinophil count (r = 0.780), IL-4 (r = 0.524), and IL-17A (r = 0.622) levels. When LINC00847 expression was used to distinguish asthma exacerbation from asthma remission, a 0.871 AUC (95% CI: 0.805–0.936) was yielded with sensitivity of 79.63% and specificity of 77.78%. Conclusion. The study demonstrates that increased LINC00847 expression may be associated with the development and progression of asthma, possibly serving as a novel biomarker for predicting asthma exacerbation from asthma remission.

Repeated α-GalCer Administration Induces a Type 2 Cytokine-Biased iNKT Cell Response and Exacerbates Atopic Skin Inflammation in Vα14Tg NC/Nga Mice

We have previously shown that Vα14 TCR Tg (Vα14^Tg) NC/Nga (NC) mice contain increased numbers of double-negative (DN) invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells that protect against spontaneous development of atopic dermatitis (AD). iNKT cells can regulate immune responses by producing various cytokines such as IFNγ and IL4 rapidly upon stimulation with α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), a prototypical iNKT cell agonist. However, the precise role of α-GalCer-activated iNKT cells in AD development remains unclear. Therefore, we examined whether repeated activation of iNKT cells with α-GalCer can regulate the pathogenesis of AD in Vα14^Tg NC mice. We found that Vα14^Tg NC mice injected repeatedly with α-GalCer display exacerbated AD symptoms (e.g., a higher clinical score, IgE hyperproduction, and increased numbers of splenic mast cells and neutrophils) compared with vehicle-injected Vα14^Tg NC mice. Moreover, the severity of AD pathogenesis in α-GalCer-injected Vα14^Tg NC mice correlated with increased Th2 cells but reduced Th1 and Foxp3⁺ Treg cells. Furthermore, the resulting alterations in the Th1/Th2 and Treg/Th2 balance were strongly associated with a biased expansion of type 2 cytokine-deviated iNKT cells in α-GalCer-treated Vα14^Tg NC mice. Collectively, our results have demonstrated the adverse effect of repeated α-GalCer treatment on skin inflammation mediated by type 2 immunity.

MC5R Contributes to Sensitivity to UVB Waves and Barrier Function in Mouse Epidermis

MC5R is known for its role in the exocrine function of sebaceous glands, but other functions in the epidermis remain unclear. This study focused on the relationship between MC5R and homeostasis in the epidermis and examined the role of MC5R in mice whose skin was irradiated with UVB waves. UVB irradiation-induced skin ulcers and severe inflammation at lower doses in homozygotes of MC5R-deficient (i.e., MC5R -/- ) mice (150 mJ/cm2) than the doses in wild-type mice (500 mJ/cm2). Transepidermal water loss was increased (approximately 10-fold) in adult MC5R -/- mice compared with that in wild-type mice. In neonates, a dye exclusion assay showed no remarkable difference between MC5R -/- and wild-type mice. After UVB irradiation, compared with wild-type mice, MC5R -/- mice showed increased inflammatory cell infiltration in the dermis of the ulcerative region, significantly increased thickness of the epidermis in the nonulcerative region, significantly more prickle cells in the nonulcerative region, and increased serum IL-6 levels but decreased IL-10 levels. Transmission electron microscopy revealed fewer lamellar granules, less lipid secretion, and an expansion of the trans-Golgi network in the epidermis in MC5R -/- mice. This study elucidated the increased sensitivity to UVB irradiation and decreased barrier function in MC5R -/- mice.

I. inflexus (Thunb.) Kudo extract improves atopic dermatitis and depressive-like behavior in DfE-induced atopic dermatitis-like disease

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin disease, which is caused by several genetic, immunological, and environmental factors. In addition to skin manifestations, AD is associated with an increased risk of depression and suicidal ideation. Furthermore, this association is underappreciated and therefore insufficiently studied.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

We investigated the association between AD and depression and the effect of I. inflexus (Thunb.) Kudo extract (IIE) treatment in a Dermatophagoides farinae extract (DfE)-induced mouse model of AD.

STUDY DESIGN

We evaluated the effects of IIE on depressive behavior in AD mice using four experimental groups: normal (untreated), AD mice (untreated Dfe-induced), IIE-treated (Dfe-induced AD mice), and positive control (tacrolimus-treated Dfe-induced AD mice).

METHODS

An AD model was established by the application of 4% sodium dodecyl sulfate to the shaved dorsal neck skin and ears of NC/Nga mice 1 h before application of 100 mg DfE twice per week for 3 weeks. After the first week of DfE application, mice were treated with IIE every day for the remaining 2 weeks. We performed behavioral testing, histology, ELISA, and western blotting to assess depressive-like behavior and neuroinflammatory responses and to measure IgE, histamine, corticosterone, and serotonin levels.

RESULTS

Compared with normal mice, AD mice showed more scratching behavior, increased ear swelling, and higher serum levels of IgE and histamine. AD mice also exhibited evidence of depressive-like behavior in the open-field and sucrose preference tests as well as altered serum corticosterone and brain serotonin concentrations. Histopathological analyses revealed increased infiltration of inflammatory cells and mast cells into the skin and ear tissue and elevated microglia activation and neuroinflammatory response in the brains of AD mice. Topical application of IIE reversed the effects of AD on scratching behavior, ear swelling, open-field locomotion, sucrose preference, and levels of IgE, histamine, corticosterone, serotonin, and inflammatory markers. Moreover, IIE treatment reduced inflammatory cytokine responses in keratinocyte cells.

CONCLUSION

IIE is a candidate anti-AD therapy due to its ability to exert neuroprotective and antidepressant effects.

Effect of combined propofol-sevoflurane anesthesia on immune function in pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Effect of combined propofol-sevoflurane anesthesia on immune function in pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) was investigated. A retrospective analysis was performed on 150 pediatric patients with ALL who were admitted to Xiangyang No. 1 People's Hospital Affiliated to Hubei University of Medicine from May 2014 to October 2017. All eligible patients were treated with intrathecal chemotherapy and were randomized into three groups according to the type of anesthesia used: group A, propofol used only; group B, sevoflurane used only; and group C, combined propofol and sevoflurane used. Venous blood samples were drawn, respectively, at 30 min before anesthesia (T1) and 24 h after anesthesia (T2). Flow cytometry was used to detect the percentages of T- and B-cell subsets, as well as the ratio of Th1/Th2 in T helper cells (Th cells). Serum levels of IFNγ, IL-4 and TGF-β were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. At T2, the percentages of CD3⁺, CD4⁺ and CD19⁺ cells in group C were significantly higher than those in groups A and B (P<0.05). The percentage of CD8⁺ cells in group C was significantly higher than that in group A (P<0.05). At T2, the percentages of Th1 and Th2 cells and the Th1/Th2 ratio in group C were higher than those in groups A and B (P<0.05). At T2, IL-4 level in group C was significantly higher than that in group A (P<0.05), while TGF-β level was significantly lower (P<0.05). The IFNγ level in group C was higher than those in groups A and B (P<0.05). The IFNγ/IL-4 ratio in group C was higher than that in group A (P<0.05). Combined propofol-sevoflurane anesthesia was more beneficial to the recovery of T/B cell subset activity, to the alleviation of immunosuppression, and the suppression of ALL progression, compared to the sole use of propofol or sevoflurane.

A novel mouse model of atopic dermatitis that is T helper 2 (Th2)-polarized by an epicutaneous allergen

The pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis (AD) involves T helper 2 (Th2) cells, and effective therapies remain elusive due to the paucity of animal models. We aimed to develop a mouse model of an immune system aberration caused by allergen. Experiments were conducted in two phases. In experiment 1, BALB/c mice were sensitized with one of four chemical allergens - toluene diisocyanate (TDI), hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), trimellitic anhydride (TMA), or 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) - for 3 weeks. Based on results of experiment 1, immunological features were compared between TMA-sensitized BALB/c mice and NC/Nga mice, after exposure to mite extracts, harmful chemicals and detergents in experiment 2. Sensitization by allergen caused a large number of pathological changes in the skin, and an increase in mast cell number. TMA-sensitized BALB/c mice models showed higher sensitivity to an environmental allergen than NC/Nga mice did. Overall, the initial sensitization with TMA leads to disturbances in Th2-mediated immunity.

Regulation of Allergic Immune Responses by Microbial Metabolites

Emerging evidence demonstrates that the microbiota plays an essential role in shaping the development and function of host immune responses. A variety of environmental stimuli, including foods and commensals, are recognized by the host through the epithelium, acting as a physical barrier. Two allergic diseases, atopic dermatitis and food allergy, are closely linked to the microbiota, because inflammatory responses occur on the epidermal border. The microbiota generates metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids and poly-γ-glutamic acid (γPGA), which can modulate host immune responses. Here, we review how microbial metabolites can regulate allergic immune responses. Furthermore, we focus on the effect of γPGA on allergic T helper (Th) 2 responses and its therapeutic application.

[Optimization of emollient formulation for treating atopic dermatitis by skin physiological index testing]

OBJECTIVE

To optimize the formulation of an emollient for treatment of atopic dermatitis prepared using ceramide, sodium hyaluronate, paeonol, and camellia-seed oil.

METHODS

The emollients with different ratios of the 4 components were designed according to the L9(34)orthogonal table with 4 factors and 3 levels. The efficacy of the prepared emollients was tested in 4-6 week-old BALB/c mouse models of atopic dermatitis to determine the optimal formulation of the emollient by evaluating skin water content, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), pharmacodynamics and skin irritation.

RESULTS

Range analysis of the orthogonal table and analysis of variance showed that ceramide and camellia seed oil contents had the greatest impact on the skin water content and TEWL, respectively, and the optimal composition of the emollient contained the 4 components at the ratios of D1E1F1G1. Pharmacodynamic experiments showed that at high, medium and low doses, the emollient with the optimal formulation significantly improved the skin water content, pH and TEWL in the mice (P<0.05) with similar effects in the positive control group (P>0.05) and a skin irritation test score of 0.

CONCLUSION

The emollient we prepared can significantly improve skin water content, pH and TEWL in the mouse model of atopic dermatitis without skin irritations.

The etiopathogenesis of atopic dermatitis: barrier disruption, immunological derangement, and pruritus

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common chronic skin inflammatory disorder characterized by recurrent eczema accompanied by an intractable itch that leads to an impaired quality of life. Extensive recent studies have shed light on the multifaceted pathogenesis of the disease. The complex interplay among skin barrier deficiency, immunological derangement, and pruritus contributes to the development, progression, and chronicity of the disease. Abnormalities in filaggrin, other stratum corneum constituents, and tight junctions induce and/or promote skin inflammation. This inflammation, in turn, can further deteriorate the barrier function by downregulating a myriad of essential barrier-maintaining molecules. Pruritus in AD, which may be due to hyperinnervation of the epidermis, increases pruritogens, and central sensitization compromises the skin integrity and promotes inflammation. There are unmet needs in the treatment of AD. Based on the detailed evidence available to date, certain disease mechanisms can be chosen as treatment targets. Numerous clinical trials of biological agents are currently being conducted and are expected to provide treatments for patients suffering from AD in the future. This review summarizes the etiopathogenesis of the disease and provides a rationale for choosing the novel targeted therapy that will be available in the future.

Targeted Delivery of Interferon Gamma Using a Recombinant Fusion Protein of a Fibrin Clot-Binding Peptide With Interferon Gamma for Cancer Gene Therapy

Accelerated formation of fibrin clots in a tumor microenvironment can be used for targeted delivery of interferon gamma (IFNγ) to tumor cells. Here, we selected cysteine-arginine-glutamic acid-lysine-alanine (CREKA) as the fibrin clot-binding peptide and designed 2 types of fusion proteins for tumor targeting. The CREKA peptide was fused to IFNγ's C-terminus, with or without a matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2)-cleavable linker (IFNγ-mmp-CREKA or IFNγ-CREKA, respectively). The former was designed to release IFNγ from IFNγ-mmp-CREKA bound to fibrin clots, to ensure IFNγ's function in the tumor milieu. IFNγ-activated sequence-dependent reporter gene expression in B16-BL6 cells revealed that the biological activities of IFNγ-CREKA and IFNγ were comparable, whereas that of IFNγ-mmp-CREKA was approximately 60% that of IFNγ. Plasma concentrations of IFNγ-CREKA and IFNγ-mmp-CREKA remained at effective levels for at least 4 weeks after gene transfer into mice. After gene transfer to tumor-bearing mice, intratumoral concentration of IFNγ in pCpG-IFNγ-mmp-CREKA group was tended to be higher than those of the other groups. Inhibition of colon-26 tumor growth was significantly more with gene transfer of IFNγ-mmp-CREKA than with IFNγ or IFNγ-CREKA. These results indicate that targeted delivery of IFNγ to fibrin clots through IFNγ-mmp-CREKA fusion can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of IFNγ in cancer gene therapy.

Depressive symptoms as a side effect of Interferon-α therapy induced by induction of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1

Depression is known to occur frequently in chronic hepatitis C viral (HCV) patients receiving interferon (IFN)-α therapy. In this study, we investigated whether indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase1 (IDO1)-mediated tryptophan (TRP) metabolism plays a critical role in depression occurring as a side effect of IFN-α therapy. Increases in serum kynurenine (KYN) and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) concentrations and in the ratios of KYN/TRP and 3-HK/kynurenic acid (KA) were much larger in depressive HCV patients than in non-depressed patients following therapy. Furthermore, transfection of a plasmid continuously expressing murine IFN-γ into normal mice significantly increased depression-like behavior. IFN-γ gene transfer also resulted in a decrease in serum TRP levels in the mice while KYN and 3-HK levels were significantly increased in both serum and frontal cortex. Genetic deletion of IDO1 in mice abrogated both the increase in depression-like behavior and the elevation in TRP metabolites’ levels, and the turnover of serotonin in the frontal cortex after IFN-γ gene transfer. These results indicate that the KYN pathway of IDO1-mediated TRP metabolism plays a critical role in depressive symptoms associated with IFN-α therapy.

Identification of Th1/Th2 regulatory switch to promote healing response during leishmaniasis: a computational approach

Leishmania devices its survival strategy by suppressing the host's immune functions. The antigen molecules produced by Leishmania interferes with the host's cell signaling cascades and consequently changes the protein expression pattern of the antigen-presenting cell (APC). This creates an environment suitable for the switching of the T-cell responses from a healing Th1 response to a non-healing Th2 response that is favorable for the continued survival of the parasite inside the host APC. Using a reconstructed signaling network of the intracellular and intercellular reactions between a Leishmania infected APC and T-cell, we propose a computational model to predict the inhibitory effect of the Leishmania infected APC on the T-cell and to identify the regulators of this Th1-/Th2-switching behavior as observed during Leishmania infection. In this work, we hypothesize that a complete removal of the parasite could only be achieved with a simultaneous up-regulation of the healing Th1 response and stimulation of nitric oxide (NO) production from the APCs, and downregulation of the non-healing Th2 response and thereby propose several unique combinations of protein molecules that could elicit this anti-Leishmania immune response. Our results indicate that TLR3 may play a positive role in eliciting NO synthesis, while TLR2 may be responsible for inhibiting an anti-Leishmania immune response. Also, TLR3 overexpression (in the APC), when combined with SHP2 inhibition (in the T cell), produces an anti-Leishmania response that is better than the conventional IFN-gamma or IL12 treatment. A similar anti-Leishmania response is also obtained in another combination where TLR3 (in APC) is overexpressed, and SHC and MKP (of T cell) are inhibited and activated, respectively. Through our study, we also observe that Leishmania infection may induce an upregulation of IFN-beta production from the APC that may lead to an upregulation of the RAP1 and SOCS3 proteins inside the T cell, the potential inhibitors of MAPK and JAK-STAT signaling pathways, respectively, via the TYK2-mediated pathway. This study not only enhances our knowledge in understanding the Th1/Th2 regulatory switch to promote healing response during leishmaniasis but also helps to identify novel combinations of proteins as potential immunomodulators.

Protective effect of diet supplemented with rice prolamin extract against DNCB-induced atopic dermatitis in BALB/c mice

Background

Rice prolamin has been reported to possess antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and immune-promoting properties. This study is aimed to examine the protective effects of dietary rice prolamin extract (RPE) against dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced atopic dermatitis (AD)-like skin lesions in mice.

Methods

BALB/c mice were fed diet supplemented with 0–0.1 % RPE for 6 weeks. For the last 2 weeks, 1 % or 0.2 % DNCB was applied repeatedly to the back skin of mice to induce AD-like lesions. Following AD induction, the severity of skin lesions was examined macroscopically and histologically. In addition, the serum levels of IgE, IgG1 and IgG2a were determined by ELISA, and the mRNA expression of IL-4 and IFN-γ in the skin was determined by real-time PCR.

Results

Dietary RPE suppressed the clinical symptoms of DNCB-induced dermatitis as well as its associated histopathological changes such as epidermal hyperplasia and infiltration of mast cells and eosinophils in the dermis. RPE treatment also suppressed the DNCB-induced increase in transepidermal water loss. Dietary RPE inhibited the DNCB-induced enhancement of serum IgE and IgG1 levels, whereas it increased the serum IgG2a level in DNCB-treated mice. In addition, dietary RPE upregulated the IFN-γ mRNA expression and downregulated the IL-4 mRNA expression in the skin of DNCB-treated mice.

Conclusions

The above results suggest that dietary RPE exerts a protective effect against DNCB-induced AD in mice via upregulation of Th1 immunity and that RPE may be useful for the treatment of AD.

Contribution of Epigenetic Modifications to the Decline in Transgene Expression from Plasmid DNA in Mouse Liver

Short-term expression of transgenes is one of the problems frequently associated with non-viral in vivo gene transfer. To obtain experimental evidence for the design of sustainable transgene expression systems, the contribution of epigenetic modifications to the decline in transgene expression needs to be investigated. Bisulfite sequencing and reactivation by hydrodynamic injection of isotonic solution were employed to investigate methylation statues of CpG in transiently expressing plasmid, pCMV-Luc, in mouse liver after hydrodynamic delivery. The cytosines of CpGs in the promoter region of pCMV-Luc were methylated in mouse liver, but the methylation was much later than the decline in the expression. The expression from pre-methylated pCMV-Luc was insensitive to reactivation. Neither an inhibitor of DNA methylation nor an inhibitor of histone deacetylation had significant effects on transgene expression after hydrodynamic injection of pCMV-Luc. Partial hepatectomy, which reduces the transgene expression from the non-integrated vector into the genome, significantly reduced the transgene expression of human interferon γ from a long-term expressing plasmid pCpG-Huγ, suggesting that the CpG-reduced plasmid was not significantly integrated into the genomic DNA. These results indicate that the CpG-reduced plasmids achieve prolonged transgene expression without integration into the host genome, although the methylation status of CpG sequences in plasmids will not be associated with the prolonged expression.

Multifunctional enveloped nanodevices (MENDs)

It is anticipated that nucleic acid medicines will be in widespread use in the future, since they have the potential to cure diseases based on molecular mechanisms at the level of gene expression. However, intelligent delivery systems are required to achieve nucleic acid therapy, since they can perform their function only when they reach the intracellular site of action. We have been developing a multifunctional envelope-type nanodevice abbreviated as MEND, which consists of functional nucleic acids as a core and lipid envelope, and can control not only biodistribution but also the intracellular trafficking of nucleic acids. In this chapter, we review the development and evolution of the MEND by providing several successful examples, including the R8-MEND, the KALA-MEND, the MITO-Porter, the YSK-MEND, and the PALM.

Probiotic fermented milk consumption modulates the allergic process induced by ovoalbumin in mice

Orally administered probiotic micro-organisms are able to regulate the exacerbated immune response during the antigenic sensitisation process. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the potential efficacy of probiotic fermented milk (PFM) in preventing or treating allergy in an experimental model, and to investigate its underlying mechanisms. Ovoalbumin (OVA)-sensitised BALB/c mice were fed with PFM before the sensitisation procedure or fed continuously with PFM. At 7 and 15 d post-sensitisation, anti-OVA-specific IgE, IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a concentrations were measured in the serum and broncho-alveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Concentrations of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), IL-4, IL-10 and total secretory IgA (S-IgA) were measured in the supernatants of macerated lungs or in the BALF. The levels of IgA+, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and F4/80+ cells were measured in the lungs by immunofluorescence. Inducible CD4+/CD25/Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells were evaluated in the lungs. PFM shifted the T helper (Th)2 profile response towards a Th1 response that led to the production of IgG instead of IgE, with increasing levels of IL-10 and IFN-γ that play an important role in immunomodulation exerted by PFM administration in sensitised mice. Anti-OVA-specific IgE levels were significantly decreased; however, there was no modification in the levels of anti-OVA-specific IgG and total S-IgA. PFM did not influence Treg cells in treated mice. Consumption of PFM could be a promising strategy in the amelioration of airway allergies, considering that the effect is mediated by the production of IgG through the activation of Th1 instead of the direct activation of Th2 cells to produce IgE.

Inhibitory/suppressive oligodeoxynucleotide nanocapsules as simple oral delivery devices for preventing atopic dermatitis in mice

Here, we report a simple and low-cost oral oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) delivery system targeted to the gut Peyer's patches (PPs). This system requires only Dulbecco's modified eagle's medium, calcium chloride, ODNs, and basic laboratory equipment. ODN nanocapsules (ODNcaps) were directly delivered to the PPs through oral administration and were taken up by macrophages in the PPs, where they induced an immune response. Long-term continuous oral dosing with inhibitory/suppressive ODNcaps (iODNcaps, "iSG3caps" in this study) was evaluated using an atopic dermatitis mouse model to visually monitor disease course. Administration of iSG3caps improved skin lesions and decreased epidermal thickness. Underlying this effect is the ability of iSG3 to bind to and prevent phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6, thereby blocking the interleukin-4 signaling cascade mediated by binding of allergens to type 2 helper T cells. The results of our iSG3cap oral delivery experiments suggest that iSG3 may be useful for treating allergic diseases.

7,8,4'-Trihydroxyisoflavone attenuates DNCB-induced atopic dermatitis-like symptoms in NC/Nga mice

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized by chronic highly pruritic and relapsing inflammatory skin lesions. Despite its growing prevalence, therapeutic treatments remain limited. Natural immune modulators from herbal extracts or derivatives may be useful for treating AD symptoms. This study examined the effect of 7,8,4'-trihydroxyisoflavone (7,8,4'-THIF), a metabolite of soy isoflavone daidzin, on AD-like symptoms. Repeated epicutaneous application of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) was performed on the ear and dorsal skin of NC/Nga mice to induce AD-like symptoms and skin lesions, and 7,8,4'-THIF (200 and 400 nmol) or tacrolimus (100 µg) was applied topically for 3 weeks to assess their anti-pruritic effects. We found that 7,8,4'-THIF alleviated DNCB-induced AD-like symptoms as quantified by skin lesion, dermatitis score, ear thickness, and scratching behavior. Histopathological analysis demonstrated that 7,8,4'-THIF decreased DNCB-induced eosinophil and mast cell infiltration into skin lesions. We also found that 7,8,4'-THIF significantly alleviated DNCB-induced loss of water through the epidermal layer. In addition to reducing the DNCB-induced increase in serum IgE, 7,8,4'-THIF also lowered skin lesion levels of the chemokine thymus and activation regulated chemokine; Th2 cytokines interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13; and Th1 cytokines IL-12 and interferon-γ. These results suggest that 7,8,4'-THIF might be a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of atopic dermatitis.

Neutralized nanoparticle composed of SS-cleavable and pH-activated lipid-like material as a long-lasting and liver-specific gene delivery system

Charge-neutralized lipid envelope-type nanoparticles formed with SS-cleavable and pH-activated lipid-like materials (ssPalm) accumulate rapidly in the liver without forming aggregates in the blood circulation, and result in a liver-specific gene expression for a long duration (>2 weeks) with neither immunological responses nor hepatotoxicity after intraveneous administration, when it carries pDNA free from CpG-motifs.

Prevention of adverse events of interferon γ gene therapy by gene delivery of interferon γ-heparin-binding domain fusion protein in mice

Sustained gene delivery of interferon (IFN) γ can be an effective treatment, but our previous study showed high levels of IFNγ-induced adverse events, including the loss of body weight. These unwanted events could be reduced by target-specific delivery of IFNγ after in vivo gene transfer. To achieve this, we selected the heparin-binding domain (HBD) of extracellular superoxide dismutase as a molecule to anchor IFNγ to the cell surface. We designed three IFNγ derivatives, IFNγ-HBD₁, IFNγ-HBD₂, and IFNγ-HBD₃, each of which had 1, 2, or 3 HBDs, respectively. Each plasmid-encoding fusion proteins was delivered to the liver, a model target in this study, by hydrodynamic tail vein injection. The serum concentration of IFNγ-HBD₂ and IFNγ-HBD₃ after gene delivery was lower than that of IFNγ or IFNγ-HBD₁. Gene delivery of IFNγ-HBD₂, but not of IFNγ-HBD₃, effectively increased the mRNA expression of IFNγ-inducible genes in the liver, suggesting liver-specific distribution of IFNγ-HBD₂. Gene delivery of IFNγ-HBD₂-suppressed tumor growth in the liver as efficiently as that of IFNγ with much less symptoms of adverse effects. These results indicate that the adverse events of IFNγ gene transfer can be prevented by gene delivery of IFNγ-HBD₂, a fusion protein with high cell surface affinity.

Effects of upregulated indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 by interferon γ gene transfer on interferon γ-mediated antitumor activity

Interferon γ (IFN-γ), an anticancer agent, is a strong inducer of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), which is a tryptophan-metabolizing enzyme involved in the induction of tumor immune tolerance. In this study, we investigated the IDO1 expression in organs after IFN-γ gene transfer to mice. IFN-γ gene transfer greatly increased the mRNA expression of IDO1 in many tissues with the highest in the liver. This upregulation was associated with reduced L-tryptophan levels and increased L-kynurenine levels in serum, indicating that IFN-γ gene transfer increased the IDO activity. Then, Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumor-bearing wild-type and IDO1-knockout (IDO1 KO) mice were used to investigate the effects of IDO1 on the antitumor activity of IFN-γ. IFN-γ gene transfer significantly retarded the tumor growth in both strains without any significant difference in tumor size between the two groups. By contrast, the IDO1 activity was increased only in the wild-type mice by IFN-γ gene transfer, suggesting that cells other than LLC cells, such as tumor stromal cells, are the major contributors of IDO1 expression in LLC tumor. Taken together, these results imply that IFN-γ gene transfer mediated IDO1 upregulation in cells other than LLC cells has hardly any effect on the antitumor activity of IFN-γ.

Neonatal vaccination with plasmid DNA encoding Cyn d 1 effectively prevents allergic responses in mice

BACKGROUND

Allergic rhinitis is one of the most common atopic disorders in children. There is no available method to prevent airway sensitization in newborns except allergen avoidance. Recombinant DNA plasmids encoding allergens have been proven to activate Th1 but attenuate Th2-deviated allergic responses in adult animal studies. However, their preventive effects are not presumptive in neonates because of their immature immune function. The aim of this study was to examine the potential preventive effect of a DNA vaccine encoding grass pollen allergen Cyn d 1 on allergic reaction to grass pollen in neonatal mice.

METHODS

Recombinant plasmid Cyn d 1 (pCyn d 1) vaccine was constructed by insertion of Cyn d 1 cDNA into the vector pcDNA3. Neonatal BALB/c mice received the vaccine once on the 3rd day of life or a second dose 2 days later. Control mice received PBS only. Mice were sensitized twice with recombinant Cyn d 1 and alum beginning at 7 weeks of age. Serum antibody responses and cytokine profiles of spleen cells were examined.

RESULTS

Neonatal injection with pCyn d 1 vaccine resulted in IgG2a responses and production of interferon gamma in spleen cells. Vaccination with pCyn d 1 also reduced specific IgE responses and spleen cell secretion of IL-4.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the prophylactic effects of DNA vaccine encoding Bermuda grass pollen allergen Cyn d 1 on specific IgE responses in neonatal mice.

[Control of spatiotemporal distribution of interferon γ by genetically fusing functional peptides]

Type II interferon (IFNγ) is a representative Th1 cytokine and it possesses a variety of functions, including immune regulation, antiviral and antitumor activity. Because of its multifunctional nature, IFNγ is expected to be applied to the treatment of autoimmune diseases, cancer and viral infection. Although IFNγ has therapeutic potential for such diseases, the clinical use of IFNγ has been limited due to its short in vivo half-life and serious adverse effects. In contrast, gene delivery of IFNγ is an alternative approach to increasing the retention time of IFNγ. To extend transgene expression after plasmid DNA (pDNA) gene transfer, we designed and developed pDNA with varying numbers of CpG motifs. CpG-reduced pDNA resulted in more durable transgene expression than its CpG replete counterpart in mice. Comparison of the effect of promoter/enhancer elements on transgene expression showed that ROSA26 promoter-mediated IFNγ expression was safe because of the lack of an initial surge after hydrodynamic gene transfer. We also designed an IFNγ-mouse serum albumin (MSA) fusion protein, IFNγ-MSA. Gene transfer of this fusion protein resulted in a sustained concentration of IFNγ fusion protein in mouse serum, and inhibited tumor metastasis in mice. These results provide experimental evidence that IFNγ gene therapy can be a useful treatment for a variety of diseases.

Reovirus type-2-triggered autoimmune cholangitis in extrahepatic bile ducts of weanling DBA/1J mice

BACKGROUND

Reovirus is a proposed cause of infantile biliary atresia. However, mechanistic insight regarding Reo-2 as a potential cholangiotropic virus is lacking. Furthermore, it is unknown whether Reo-2 infection can induce autoimmune-mediated bile duct injury.

METHODS

Lesions of bile ducts in newborn DBA/1J mice infected with Reo-2 were analyzed immunopathologically.

RESULTS

Damage to biliary epithelia occurs after Reo-2 infection. In addition, nonsuppurative cholangitis with fibrosis in extrahepatic (especially septal) bile ducts developed following complete viral clearance from the liver. At the inflamed ducts, major histocompatibility complex class I expressing((+)) and FAS(+) cholangiocytes were associated with FAS ligand(+) lymphocytes and tumor necrosis factor-α(+) mononuclear cells (macrophages and lymphocytes). These cholangiocytes were apoptotic and necrotic. Moreover, affected ducts were infiltrated by CD3(+), CD4(+), CD8(+), IFN-γ(+), and FAS(+) lymphocytes. Analysis of blood from Reo-2-infected mice revealed that they developed anticholangiocyte cytoplasm antibodies and had high serum IFN-γ concentration. Notably, there was no increase in Foxp3(+) lymphocytes at inflamed ducts, lymph nodes, and thymi.

CONCLUSION

Reo-2 infection induced T-helper cell type 1-dependent injury to bile ducts in weanling mice. The lesions observed in mice may be analogous to those associated with human infantile biliary atresia, which are caused by an autoimmune-mediated process.

Long-term elimination of hepatitis C virus from human hepatocyte chimeric mice after interferon-γ gene transfer

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a leading cause of cirrhosis, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although the combination therapy employing pegylated interferon (IFN)-α and ribavirin is effective, this treatment is effective in only approximately 50% patients with genotype 1 HCV infection. IFN-γ is a potent anti-HCV agent that exhibits its antiviral action through a receptor distinct from that for IFN-α. Therefore, IFN-γ application might provide an alternative approach to IFN-α-based therapies. However, recombinant IFN-γ protein exhibits a poor pharmacokinetic property, that is, a very short half-life. It is our hypothesis that sustained IFN-γ serum concentrations produced by gene transfer could effectively eliminate HCV in vivo. We examined the in vivo antiviral activity in human hepatocyte chimeric mice infected with genotype 1b HCV at high HCV RNA titers (10(5)-10(7) copies/ml). The human IFN-γ-expressing plasmid vector pCpG-huIFNγ exhibited prolonged transgene expression in mice compared with the plasmid vector pCMV-huIFNγ. Moreover, the gene transfer of pCpG-huIFNγ eliminated HCV from the liver of the chimeric mice for a sustained period. On the contrary, administration of pCMV-huIFNγ could not eliminate HCV. In conclusion, we found that a single pCpG-huIFNγ injection resulted in long-term elimination of HCV RNA in chimeric mice, providing, for the first time, direct evidence that chronic infection with high titer HCV in vivo can be treated by sustained IFN-γ treatment.

Extended duration of transgene expression from pegylated POD nanoparticles enables attenuation of photoreceptor degeneration

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is the most genetically heterogeneous disorder known to cause blindness, involving over 50 different genes. Previously, we have described nanoparticles (NPs) 150 nm in size, comprised of a 3.5 kD peptide (POD) complexed to PEG and DNA (PEGPOD DNA). These NPs expressing GDNF enabled rescue of photoreceptor degeneration in mice up to 11 days post injection. In the current study we examine use of scaffold/ matrix attachment regions (S/MARs), CpG depletion and titration of DNA content of PEGPOD DNA NPs to extend the duration of transgene expression. S/MARs and CpGs did not significantly influence the duration of transgene expression, but did influence its stability. These parameters enabled us to extend transgene expression from 48 hours to 10 weeks. At 77 days post injection, we observed a 76% rescue of the thickness of the retinal outer nuclear layer (ONL) and at 37 days post injection we observed 53% and 55% rescue of the A and B wave ERG amplitudes respectively and 60% rescue of the ONL. Our studies suggest that PEGPOD DNA NPs have potential as gene delivery vectors for the retina.

Oral administration of poly-γ-glutamate ameliorates atopic dermatitis in Nc/Nga mice by suppressing Th2-biased immune response and production of IL-17A

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease that is closely related to dysregulation of the T helper type 1 and 2 (Th1)/Th2 balance. A previous study showed that high molecular mass poly-γ-glutamate (γ-PGA) isolated from Bacillus subtilis sp. Chungkookjang induces the production of IL-12 from dendritic cells (DCs). Here, we investigated the effect of γ-PGA on AD-like skin disease using an Nc/Nga mouse model. In vitro, γ-PGA activated DCs and induced IL-12 production in mice. In vivo, oral administration of γ-PGA markedly reduced the AD symptoms, similar to the response seen in the dexamethasone (Dex)-treated group. Treatment with γ-PGA also decreased the serum levels of IgG1, the skin levels of Th2 cytokines, the extent of skin inflammation, and the accumulation of mast cells. Furthermore, γ-PGA was effective against established AD, significantly decreasing serum IgE and Th2 cytokines in the inflamed tissue. Interestingly, the production of IL-17A in splenocytes was also suppressed by γ-PGA, indicating that it inhibits both Th2 and Th17 immune responses. Collectively, these results suggest that oral administration of γ-PGA could be a therapeutic strategy for treating AD via the modulation of Th2-biased immune responses in an Nc/Nga mouse model.

Effects of oral administration of probiotics from Mongolian dairy products on the Th1 immune response in mice

We investigated 10 lactic acid bacteria strains with probiotic potential prepared from Mongolian dairy products for their ability to induce T helper type-1 (Th1) cytokine production in mouse immune cells in vitro and in vivo. Among these strains, the Lactobacillus plantarum 06CC2 strain was effective in elevating the level of interleukin (IL)-12p40 in co-culture with J774.1 cells and the levels of IL-12 and interferon (IFN)-γ in co-culture with mouse spleen cells in vitro. Oral administration of this strain augmented the gene expression of IFN-γ and IL-12p40 and enlarged the population of CD4(+), CD25(+), and CD49b(+) cells in the spleens of normal mice. It also significantly elevated the gene expression of IL-12 receptor β2 as well as IL-12p40 and IFN-γ in Peyer's patches. Thus oral administration of strain 06CC2 was effective in inducing Th1 cytokine production activating the Th1 immune response associated with intestinal immunity in normal mice.

Constant and steady transgene expression of interferon-γ by optimization of plasmid construct for safe and effective interferon-γ gene therapy

BACKGROUND

Hydrodynamic injection of pmCMV(enh) -hEF-1(prom) -muIFN-γ, a plasmid DNA (pDNA) expressing murine interferon (IFN)-γ with a murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) enhancer and a human elongation factor (EF)-1 promoter, has been proven effective for the treatment of cancer and atopic dermatitis in mice. However, the initial peak of IFN-γ soon after injection was quite high compared to the steady level for subsequent periods, which could cause unwanted adverse effects. Therefore, in the present study, aiming to optimize the efficacy/side-effect ratio of IFN-γ gene transfer, we have developed plasmid vectors encoding murine IFN-γ under the control of different combinations of promoter and enhancer sequences.

METHODS

The promoter and enhancer sequence of pmCMV(enh) -hEF-1(prom) -huIFN-γ, a prototype plasmid expressing human IFN-γ, was replaced or deleted to obtain various pDNAs. To assess the transgene expression profile, each pDNA was delivered to mice by hydrodynamic injection and the serum IFN-γ concentration was measured periodically. On the basis of the results obtained, murine IFN-γ expressing pDNAs were constructed and the body weight change was monitored as an indicator of adverse effects.

RESULTS

The prototype pmCMV(enh) -hEF-1(prom) -huIFN-γ showed a high but declining concentration of IFN-γ. Those containing hROSA26 promoter expressed the transgene in a more constant manner with no initial high concentrations and scarcely reduced the body weight.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that hROSA26 promoter, irrespective of the presence and type of enhancers, is suitable for achieving constant and steady level of transgene expression and effective in avoiding the body weight loss caused by high concentrations of IFN-γ.

Cytokines as biomarkers of nanoparticle immunotoxicity

Nanoscale objects, whether of biologic origin or synthetically created, are being developed into devices for a variety of bionanotechnology diagnostic and pharmaceutical applications. However, the potential immunotoxicity of these nanomaterials and mechanisms by which they may induce adverse reactions have not received sufficient attention. Nanomaterials, depending on their characteristics and compositions, can interact with the immune system in several ways and either enhance or suppress immune system function. Cytokines perform pleiotropic functions to mediate and regulate the immune response and are generally recognized as biomarkers of immunotoxicity. While the specificity and validity of certain cytokines as markers of adverse immune response has been established for chemicals, small and macromolecular drugs, research on their applicability for predicting and monitoring the immunotoxicity of engineered nanomaterials is still ongoing. The goal of this review is to provide guidelines as to important cytokines that can be utilized for evaluating the immunotoxicity of nanomaterials and to highlight the role of those cytokines in mediating adverse reactions, which is of particular importance for the clinical development of nanopharmaceuticals and other nanotechnology-based products. Importantly, the rational design of nanomaterials of low immunotoxicity will be discussed, focusing on synthetic nanodevices, with emphasis on both the nanoparticle-forming materials and the embedded cargoes.

Gene delivery of albumin binding peptide-interferon-gamma fusion protein with improved pharmacokinetic properties and sustained biological activity

We have demonstrated that gene delivery of a fusion protein of mouse interferon (IFN) γ with mouse serum albumin (IFNγ-MSA) was effective in prolonging the circulation half-life of IFNγ in mice. However, the fusion to MSA greatly reduced the biological activity of IFNγ to less than 1%. In this study, we designed IFNγ fusion proteins with a 20 amino-acid long albumin-binding peptide (ABP) to prolong the in vivo half-life of IFNγ without reducing its biological activity. IFNγ-ABP and ABP-IFNγ, two fusion proteins with the ABP being fused to the C- or N-terminal of IFNγ, retained 40%-50% biological activities determined using a gamma-activated sequence-dependent luciferase assay. These fusion proteins exhibited the ability to bind to MSA. Gene delivery of IFNγ-ABP or ABP-IFNγ to mice using the hydrodynamic injection method resulted in a sustained concentration of IFNγ in the serum compared with gene delivery of IFNγ. In addition, the growth of mouse colon carcinoma CT-26 cells in the lung was efficiently inhibited by gene delivery of the IFNγ fusion proteins. These results indicate that the fusion of ABP is a useful approach to achieving prolonged retention in the blood circulation through binding to serum albumin and retaining biological activity.

Mixture of Polyphenols and Anthocyanins from Vaccinium uliginosum L. Alleviates DNCB-Induced Atopic Dermatitis in NC/Nga Mice

Vaccinium uliginosum L. (VU) possesses various biological properties, such as antioxidant and protective effects against VU-induced skin photoaging. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of oral administration of a mixture of polyphenols and anthocyanins derived from VU on 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene- (DNCB-) induced atopic dermatitis (AD) in NC/Nga mice. We assessed anti-AD effects in NC/Nga murine model for a period of 9 weeks. Oral administration of the mixture significantly alleviated the AD-like skin symptoms and clinical signs including ear thickness and scratching behaviors. Orally administrated mixture reduced the level of IgE and IgG1, whereas it increased the level of IgG2a in a dose-dependent manner. The calculated IgG1/IgG2a ratio for each mouse revealed that the mixture derived from VU also significantly reduced the Th2/Th1 ratio, IL-4 and IL-13 (as Th2 cytokines), IFN-γ, and IL-12 (as a Th1 cytokine) in spleens. In addition, it significantly decreased gene expression, such as IL-4, IL-5, CCR3, eotaxin-1, IL- 12, IFN-γ, MCP-1, and IL-17, in AD-like lesions and suppressed Th17. Histological analyses revealed that the epidermis thickness and number of inflammatory cells were significantly reduced. In conclusion, oral administration of the mixture in the DNCB-induced AD is confirmed to improve AD disease in mice.

Regulation of immunological balance by sustained interferon-γ gene transfer for acute phase of atopic dermatitis in mice

Interferon (IFN)-γ, a potent T helper 1 (Th1) cell cytokine, is suggested to suppress Th2 cell responses. Here, we aimed to investigate whether pCpG-Muγ, a plasmid continuously expressing murine IFN-γ, is an effective treatment of atopic dermatitis, a Th2-dominant skin disease. Nishiki-nezumi Cinnamon/Nagoya (NC/Nga) atopic mice with early dermatitis were transfected with pCpG-Muγ by a hydrodynamic tail vein injection at a dose of 0.05 or 0.2 pmol per mouse. The skin lesions improved only in mice receiving the high dose of pCpG-Muγ. IFN-γ gene transfer resulted in a high mRNA expression of IFN-γ and interleukin (IL)-12 and regulatory T cell (Treg) related cytokines, such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β, in the spleen, whereas it reduced the IL-4 mRNA expression, and serum levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) G1 and IgE. In addition, the gene transfer markedly inhibited the epidermal thickening, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the skin, the occurrence of dry skin and pruritus. No exacerbating effect on the Th1-mediated contact dermatitis was observed after IFN-γ gene transfer. Taken together, these results indicate that sustained IFN-γ gene transfer induced polarized Th1 immunity under Th2-dominant conditions in NC/Nga mice, leading to an improvement in the symptoms of acute atopic dermatitis without adverse side effects.

CpG-free plasmid expression cassettes for cystic fibrosis gene therapy

Clinical studies are underway for the aerosol delivery of plasmid DNA complexed with Genzyme Lipid GL67A to the lungs of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Plasmid vectors contain several functional elements all of which play a role in determining the efficacy of the final clinical product. To optimise the final plasmid, variations of CpG-free 5' enhancer elements and 3'UTR regions were inserted into a common CpG-free, plasmid backbone containing Luciferase or CFTR transgenes. Plasmids were compared in immortalised cell culture, human airway liquid interface primary cell cultures, and mouse lung models to determine which design directed optimal transgene expression. Following aerosol delivery to mouse lung, plasmids containing the murine CMV enhancer showed higher peak Luciferase activity than the human CMV enhancer, but the human version resulted in persistent expression. In cell culture, the SV40 3'UTR and a novel BGH2 3'UTR exhibited up to 20-fold higher Luciferase activity than the commonly used BGH 3'UTR, but in mouse lung aerosol studies the activity and duration was greater for BGH 3'UTR. Systematic evaluation of each functional component of the plasmid has resulted in an improved design, exhibiting superior levels and duration of lung gene expression.

Topical Application of Chrysanthemum indicum L. Attenuates the Development of Atopic Dermatitis-Like Skin Lesions by Suppressing Serum IgE Levels, IFN-γ, and IL-4 in Nc/Nga Mice

Chrysanthemum indicum L. (CIL) is widely used as an anti-inflammatory agent in Asia and our preliminary study revealed that CIL reduced interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 in 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-treated HaCaT cells, a human keratinocyte cell line. We investigated the atopic dermatitis (AD) effect of topically applied CIL in mice with AD-like symptoms. After topical application of 1,3-butylen glycol (control), CIL-Low (5%), CIL-High (30%), or 0.1% hydrocortisone (HC) on the AD-like skin lesions in DNCB-treated NC/Nga mice for 5 weeks, the ear thickness, mast cell infiltration, and serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), IgG1, IL-4 and interferon (IFN)-γ were measured. The gene expressions of IL-4, IL-13, and IFN-γ in the dorsal skin were assayed. CIL treatment dosedependently reduced severity of clinical symptoms of dorsal skin, ear thickness, and the number of mast cells and eosinophils. CIL-High significantly decreased serum IgE, IgG1, IL-4, and IFN-γ levels and reduced mRNA levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-13 in dorsal skin lesion. The improvement by CIL-High was similar to HC, but without its adverse effects such as skin atrophy maceration, and secondary infection. In conclusion, CIL may be an effective alternative substance for the management of AD.

Prevention of peritoneal adhesions: a promising role for gene therapy

Adhesions are the most frequent complication of abdominopelvic surgery, yet the extent of the problem, and its serious consequences, has not been adequately recognized. Adhesions evolved as a life-saving mechanism to limit the spread of intraperitoneal inflammatory conditions. Three different pathophysiological mechanisms can independently trigger adhesion formation. Mesothelial cell injury and loss during operations, tissue hypoxia and inflammation each promotes adhesion formation separately, and potentiate the effect of each other. Studies have repeatedly demonstrated that interruption of a single pathway does not completely prevent adhesion formation. This review summarizes the pathogenesis of adhesion formation and the results of single gene therapy interventions. It explores the promising role of combinatorial gene therapy and vector modifications for the prevention of adhesion formation in order to stimulate new ideas and encourage rapid advancements in this field.

Administration of poly(I:C) improved dermatophagoides farinae-induced atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice by the regulation of Th1/Th2 balance

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized by a chronic and replapsing skin disease with Th2-dominant allergic inflammation. Poly(I:C) has been shown to have immunopotentiator properties, but its effect on AD has not been examined. In this study, the immunomodulatory effects of poly(I:C), using dermatophagoides farinae (Df)-induced AD-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice, were investigated. The clinical scores were reduced significantly by the treatment with poly(I:C) at 25 and 50 μg/mouse. Histological analysis of the skin also revealed that treatment of poly(I:C) at 25 and 50 μg/mouse significantly reduced the inflammatory cellular infiltrate, including mast cells and eosinophils. Moreover, poly(I:C) increased the level of IFN-γ, a Th1 cytokine, whereas decreasing that of selective Th2 cytokine both in vivo and in vitro. The levels of serum IgE and Th2 chemokines such as eotaxin, TARC, in spleen cells were also reduced by poly(I:C). These results suggest that poly(I:C) inhibit the development of Df-induced AD-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice through regulation of the Th1/Th2 balance. Therefore, our results indicate that poly(I:C) might be a useful immunomodulatory agent for the treatment of human AD.